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Michael Weekes

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Nick K. Jones1,2*, Lucy Rivett1,2*, Chris Workman3, Mark Ferris3, Ashley Shaw1, Cambridge COVID-19 Collaboration1,4, Paul J. Lehner1,4, Rob Howes5, Giles Wright3, Nicholas J. Matheson1,4,6¶, Michael P. Weekes1,7¶1 Cambridge University NHS Hospitals Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK2 Clinical Microbiology & Public Health Laboratory, Public Health England, Cambridge, UK3 Occupational Health and Wellbeing, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK4 Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology & Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK5 Cambridge COVID-19 Testing Centre and AstraZeneca, Anne Mclaren Building, Cambridge, UK6 NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge, UK7 Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK*Joint first authorship¶Joint last authorshipCorrespondence: [email protected] UK has initiated mass COVID-19 immunisation, with healthcare workers (HCWs) given early priority because of the potential for workplace exposure and risk of onward transmission to patients. The UK’s Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation has recommended maximising the number of people vaccinated with first doses at the expense of early booster vaccinations, based on single dose efficacy against symptomatic COVID-19 disease.1-3At the time of writing, three COVID-19 vaccines have been granted emergency use authorisation in the UK, including the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine (Pfizer-BioNTech). A vital outstanding question is whether this vaccine prevents or promotes asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection, rather than symptomatic COVID-19 disease, because sub-clinical infection following vaccination could continue to drive transmission. This is especially important because many UK HCWs have received this vaccine, and nosocomial COVID-19 infection has been a persistent problem.Through the implementation of a 24 h-turnaround PCR-based comprehensive HCW screening programme at Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust (CUHNFT), we previously demonstrated the frequent presence of pauci- and asymptomatic infection amongst HCWs during the UK’s first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.4 Here, we evaluate the effect of first-dose BNT162b2 vaccination on test positivity rates and cycle threshold (Ct) values in the asymptomatic arm of our programme, which now offers weekly screening to all staff.Vaccination of HCWs at CUHNFT began on 8th December 2020, with mass vaccination from 8th January 2021. Here, we analyse data from the two weeks spanning 18thto 31st January 2021, during which: (a) the prevalence of COVID-19 amongst HCWs remained approximately constant; and (b) we screened comparable numbers of vaccinated and unvaccinated HCWs. Over this period, 4,408 (week 1) and 4,411 (week 2) PCR tests were performed from individuals reporting well to work. We stratified HCWs <12 days or > 12 days post-vaccination because this was the point at which protection against symptomatic infection began to appear in phase III clinical trial.226/3,252 (0·80%) tests from unvaccinated HCWs were positive (Ct<36), compared to 13/3,535 (0·37%) from HCWs <12 days post-vaccination and 4/1,989 (0·20%) tests from HCWs ≥12 days post-vaccination (p=0·023 and p=0·004, respectively; Fisher’s exact test, Figure). This suggests a four-fold decrease in the risk of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection amongst HCWs ≥12 days post-vaccination, compared to unvaccinated HCWs, with an intermediate effect amongst HCWs <12 days post-vaccination.A marked reduction in infections was also seen when analyses were repeated with: (a) inclusion of HCWs testing positive through both the symptomatic and asymptomatic arms of the programme (56/3,282 (1·71%) unvaccinated vs 8/1,997 (0·40%) ≥12 days post-vaccination, 4·3-fold reduction, p=0·00001); (b) inclusion of PCR tests which were positive at the limit of detection (Ct>36, 42/3,268 (1·29%) vs 15/2,000 (0·75%), 1·7-fold reduction, p=0·075); and (c) extension of the period of analysis to include six weeks from December 28th to February 7th 2021 (113/14,083 (0·80%) vs 5/4,872 (0·10%), 7·8-fold reduction, p=1x10-9). In addition, the median Ct value of positive tests showed a non-significant trend towards increase between unvaccinated HCWs and HCWs > 12 days post-vaccination (23·3 to 30·3, Figure), suggesting that samples from vaccinated individuals had lower viral loads.We therefore provide real-world evidence for a high level of protection against asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection after a single dose of BNT162b2 vaccine, at a time of predominant transmission of the UK COVID-19 variant of concern 202012/01 (lineage B.1.1.7), and amongst a population with a relatively low frequency of prior infection (7.2% antibody positive).5This work was funded by a Wellcome Senior Clinical Research Fellowship to MPW (108070/Z/15/Z), a Wellcome Principal Research Fellowship to PJL (210688/Z/18/Z), and an MRC Clinician Scientist Fellowship (MR/P008801/1) and NHSBT workpackage (WPA15-02) to NJM. Funding was also received from Addenbrooke’s Charitable Trust and the Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre. We also acknowledge contributions from all staff at CUHNFT Occupational Health and Wellbeing and the Cambridge COVID-19 Testing Centre.

Guangming Wang

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Tam Hunt

and 1 more

Tam Hunt [1], Jonathan SchoolerUniversity of California Santa Barbara Synchronization, harmonization, vibrations, or simply resonance in its most general sense seems to have an integral relationship with consciousness itself. One of the possible “neural correlates of consciousness” in mammalian brains is a combination of gamma, beta and theta synchrony. More broadly, we see similar kinds of resonance patterns in living and non-living structures of many types. What clues can resonance provide about the nature of consciousness more generally? This paper provides an overview of resonating structures in the fields of neuroscience, biology and physics and attempts to coalesce these data into a solution to what we see as the “easy part” of the Hard Problem, which is generally known as the “combination problem” or the “binding problem.” The combination problem asks: how do micro-conscious entities combine into a higher-level macro-consciousness? The proposed solution in the context of mammalian consciousness suggests that a shared resonance is what allows different parts of the brain to achieve a phase transition in the speed and bandwidth of information flows between the constituent parts. This phase transition allows for richer varieties of consciousness to arise, with the character and content of that consciousness in each moment determined by the particular set of constituent neurons. We also offer more general insights into the ontology of consciousness and suggest that consciousness manifests as a relatively smooth continuum of increasing richness in all physical processes, distinguishing our view from emergentist materialism. We refer to this approach as a (general) resonance theory of consciousness and offer some responses to Chalmers’ questions about the different kinds of “combination problem.”  At the heart of the universe is a steady, insistent beat: the sound of cycles in sync…. [T]hese feats of synchrony occur spontaneously, almost as if nature has an eerie yearning for order. Steven Strogatz, Sync: How Order Emerges From Chaos in the Universe, Nature and Daily Life (2003) If you want to find the secrets of the universe, think in terms of energy, frequency and vibration.Nikola Tesla (1942) I.               Introduction Is there an “easy part” and a “hard part” to the Hard Problem of consciousness? In this paper, we suggest that there is. The harder part is arriving at a philosophical position with respect to the relationship of matter and mind. This paper is about the “easy part” of the Hard Problem but we address the “hard part” briefly in this introduction.  We have both arrived, after much deliberation, at the position of panpsychism or panexperientialism (all matter has at least some associated mind/experience and vice versa). This is the view that all things and processes have both mental and physical aspects. Matter and mind are two sides of the same coin.  Panpsychism is one of many possible approaches that addresses the “hard part” of the Hard Problem. We adopt this position for all the reasons various authors have listed (Chalmers 1996, Griffin 1997, Hunt 2011, Goff 2017). This first step is particularly powerful if we adopt the Whiteheadian version of panpsychism (Whitehead 1929).  Reaching a position on this fundamental question of how mind relates to matter must be based on a “weight of plausibility” approach, rather than on definitive evidence, because establishing definitive evidence with respect to the presence of mind/experience is difficult. We must generally rely on examining various “behavioral correlates of consciousness” in judging whether entities other than ourselves are conscious – even with respect to other humans—since the only consciousness we can know with certainty is our own. Positing that matter and mind are two sides of the same coin explains the problem of consciousness insofar as it avoids the problems of emergence because under this approach consciousness doesn’t emerge. Consciousness is, rather, always present, at some level, even in the simplest of processes, but it “complexifies” as matter complexifies, and vice versa. Consciousness starts very simple and becomes more complex and rich under the right conditions, which in our proposed framework rely on resonance mechanisms. Matter and mind are two sides of the coin. Neither is primary; they are coequal.  We acknowledge the challenges of adopting this perspective, but encourage readers to consider the many compelling reasons to consider it that are reviewed elsewhere (Chalmers 1996, Griffin 1998, Hunt 2011, Goff 2017, Schooler, Schooler, & Hunt, 2011; Schooler, 2015).  Taking a position on the overarching ontology is the first step in addressing the Hard Problem. But this leads to the related questions: at what level of organization does consciousness reside in any particular process? Is a rock conscious? A chair? An ant? A bacterium? Or are only the smaller constituents, such as atoms or molecules, of these entities conscious? And if there is some degree of consciousness even in atoms and molecules, as panpsychism suggests (albeit of a very rudimentary nature, an important point to remember), how do these micro-conscious entities combine into the higher-level and obvious consciousness we witness in entities like humans and other mammals?  This set of questions is known as the “combination problem,” another now-classic problem in the philosophy of mind, and is what we describe here as the “easy part” of the Hard Problem. Our characterization of this part of the problem as “easy”[2] is, of course, more than a little tongue in cheek. The authors have discussed frequently with each other what part of the Hard Problem should be labeled the easier part and which the harder part. Regardless of the labels we choose, however, this paper focuses on our suggested solution to the combination problem.  Various solutions to the combination problem have been proposed but none have gained widespread acceptance. This paper further elaborates a proposed solution to the combination problem that we first described in Hunt 2011 and Schooler, Hunt, and Schooler 2011. The proposed solution rests on the idea of resonance, a shared vibratory frequency, which can also be called synchrony or field coherence. We will generally use resonance and “sync,” short for synchrony, interchangeably in this paper. We describe the approach as a general resonance theory of consciousness or just “general resonance theory” (GRT). GRT is a field theory of consciousness wherein the various specific fields associated with matter and energy are the seat of conscious awareness.  A summary of our approach appears in Appendix 1.  All things in our universe are constantly in motion, in process. Even objects that appear to be stationary are in fact vibrating, oscillating, resonating, at specific frequencies. So all things are actually processes. Resonance is a specific type of motion, characterized by synchronized oscillation between two states.  An interesting phenomenon occurs when different vibrating processes come into proximity: they will often start vibrating together at the same frequency. They “sync up,” sometimes in ways that can seem mysterious, and allow for richer and faster information and energy flows (Figure 1 offers a schematic). Examining this phenomenon leads to potentially deep insights about the nature of consciousness in both the human/mammalian context but also at a deeper ontological level.

Susanne Schilling*^

and 9 more

Jessica mead

and 6 more

The construct of wellbeing has been criticised as a neoliberal construction of western individualism that ignores wider systemic issues including increasing burden of chronic disease, widening inequality, concerns over environmental degradation and anthropogenic climate change. While these criticisms overlook recent developments, there remains a need for biopsychosocial models that extend theoretical grounding beyond individual wellbeing, incorporating overlapping contextual issues relating to community and environment. Our first GENIAL model \cite{Kemp_2017} provided a more expansive view of pathways to longevity in the context of individual health and wellbeing, emphasising bidirectional links to positive social ties and the impact of sociocultural factors. In this paper, we build on these ideas and propose GENIAL 2.0, focusing on intersecting individual-community-environmental contributions to health and wellbeing, and laying an evidence-based, theoretical framework on which future research and innovative therapeutic innovations could be based. We suggest that our transdisciplinary model of wellbeing - focusing on individual, community and environmental contributions to personal wellbeing - will help to move the research field forward. In reconceptualising wellbeing, GENIAL 2.0 bridges the gap between psychological science and population health health systems, and presents opportunities for enhancing the health and wellbeing of people living with chronic conditions. Implications for future generations including the very survival of our species are discussed.  

Mark Ferris

and 14 more

IntroductionConsistent with World Health Organization (WHO) advice [1], UK Infection Protection Control guidance recommends that healthcare workers (HCWs) caring for patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) should use fluid resistant surgical masks type IIR (FRSMs) as respiratory protective equipment (RPE), unless aerosol generating procedures (AGPs) are being undertaken or are likely, when a filtering face piece 3 (FFP3) respirator should be used [2]. In a recent update, an FFP3 respirator is recommended if “an unacceptable risk of transmission remains following rigorous application of the hierarchy of control” [3]. Conversely, guidance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that HCWs caring for patients with COVID-19 should use an N95 or higher level respirator [4]. WHO guidance suggests that a respirator, such as FFP3, may be used for HCWs in the absence of AGPs if availability or cost is not an issue [1].A recent systematic review undertaken for PHE concluded that: “patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection who are breathing, talking or coughing generate both respiratory droplets and aerosols, but FRSM (and where required, eye protection) are considered to provide adequate staff protection” [5]. Nevertheless, FFP3 respirators are more effective in preventing aerosol transmission than FRSMs, and observational data suggests that they may improve protection for HCWs [6]. It has therefore been suggested that respirators should be considered as a means of affording the best available protection [7], and some organisations have decided to provide FFP3 (or equivalent) respirators to HCWs caring for COVID-19 patients, despite a lack of mandate from local or national guidelines [8].Data from the HCW testing programme at Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust (CUHNFT) during the first wave of the UK severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic indicated a higher incidence of infection amongst HCWs caring for patients with COVID-19, compared with those who did not [9]. Subsequent studies have confirmed this observation [10, 11]. This disparity persisted at CUHNFT in December 2020, despite control measures consistent with PHE guidance and audits indicating good compliance. The CUHNFT infection control committee therefore implemented a change of RPE for staff on “red” (COVID-19) wards from FRSMs to FFP3 respirators. In this study, we analyse the incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in HCWs before and after this transition.

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Kumuda KB

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This study provides a comprehensive assessment of the current status of the Chitravathi River catchment area in Chikkaballapura District, Karnataka, with the goal of transforming it into a perennial river. The study aims to benchmark the river and its catchment, identify the drivers of degradation, and propose approaches to conserve and enhance the riverine ecosystem. The Chitravathi River, part of the Pennar River basin, traverses a drought-prone region, experiencing significant seasonal variations in flow due to over-extraction of groundwater and changing land use patterns. The catchment area, covering approximately 539 sq. km and comprising 264 villages, is characterized by low drainage density and stream frequency, indicating high retention of rainwater but excessive groundwater extraction exceeding annual recharge rates. The study documents significant land use changes, population growth, and increased economic activity impacting water demand. It highlights issues such as water quality challenges due to fluoride, nitrate, and TDS contamination, and the unsustainable use of groundwater. The report also outlines current government initiatives to augment water availability, such as the Hebbala-Nagavara Valley and Yettinahole projects, and emphasizes the need for ecologically sustainable cropping patterns and terrain-specific recharge structures. The findings underscore the importance of integrated water management strategies and policy interventions to rejuvenate the Chitravathi River and ensure sustainable water resources for the region.

Yang Zhou

and 6 more

Otolith is one of the most commonly used tools to trace fish life history, as its formation is affected by environmental factors during growth. This study investigates the otolith micro-chemical information of Schizothorax grahami from the upper (U1, U2, U3), middle (M1, M2, M3) and lower (L1, L2, L3) reaches in the source section of Chishui River, China, as well as the metal content of the water corresponding to fish habitats. Seventeen active elements in otolith were detected, and calcium (Ca) content was the highest (175605.4*10-6 g/g). Only strontium (Sr) was regularly distributed in otolith rings by face-scan images with a relatively small coefficient of variation. A paired two t-test showed that the values of Sr: Ca were significant differences among the samples from the three reaches through otolith line scans. In the correlation test after the first-order difference processing, the change frequency of Sr: Ca values in the otolith corresponded better to the line plots and significantly differed among the three reaches, especially the samples from the U3 and L2 sites. Therefore, analyzing Sr in the otolith of S. grahami from three reaches can differentiate fish stocks and reveal their unique life histories. The magnesium (Mg) in the otolith core at the early stage of fish life was significantly higher than that of the non-core area. Likewise, Mg content was higher in the fish spawning ground than in the non-spawning ground. Presumably, Mg content in the otolith was correlated to the water environment of the spawning ground. Meanwhile, the values of Mg: Ca in the otolith core showed significant differences among the samples from U3, L2 and the other sites, indicating that fish in these samples came from different spawning grounds. The characteristics of Mg in the otolith can reflect the life history of S. grahami in the Chishui River and the location of spawning grounds. This study indicates that strontium and magnesium in otolith can be used to trace the life history of S. grahami in the Chishui River and aid fishery management for different fish stocks.

Lillian McGilp

and 7 more

Northern Wild Rice (NWR; Zizania palustris L.) is an aquatic, annual grass with significant ecological, cultural, and economic importance to the Great Lakes region of North America. In this study, we assembled and genotyped a diverse collection of 839 NWR individuals using genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) and obtained 5,955 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Our collection consisted of samples from 12 wild NWR populations collected across Minnesota and Western Wisconsin, some of which were collected over two time points; a representative collection of cultivated NWR varieties and breeding populations; and a Zizania aquatica outgroup. Using these data, we characterized the genetic diversity, relatedness, and population structure of this broad collection of NWR genotypes. We found that wild populations of NWR clustered primarily by their geographical location, with some clustering patterns likely influenced by historical ecosystem management. Cultivated populations were genetically distinct from wild populations, suggesting limited gene flow between the semi-domesticated crop and its wild counterparts. The first genome-wide scans of putative selection events in cultivated NWR suggest that the crop is undergoing heavy selection pressure for traits conducive to irrigated paddy conditions. Overall, this study presents a large set of SNP markers for use in NWR genetic studies and provides new insights into the gene flow, history, and complexity of wild and cultivated populations of NWR.

Chong Fu

and 5 more

Image inpainting represents a fundamental task in computer vision, primarily focusing on the generation of missing content within an image to restore its integrity and aesthetics. Existing GAN-based approaches often yield content with ambiguity and entail high training costs. They tend to concentrate narrowly on damaged regions, leading to distortions along edges, which consequently hampers generalization. To overcome these challenges and achieve high-fidelity image inpainting, we introduce an image editing algorithm to the image inpainting task by designing two distinct networks. The first network, Edge-e4e, uses pretrained StyleGAN2 for global image generation, mitigating edge distortions in damaged regions and reducing training costs. Simultaneously, we incorporate contour information in the damaged areas to ensure the correctness of the restoration content. The second network, the Appending network, includes two style-based encoders and a generator to refine the images restored by the Edge-e4e network. Specifically, we subtract the restored images from the input images in the channel dimension to obtain a distortion map, which serves as a prior to refine the restored images. The encoders extract features from the input images and distortion map, while the generator is employed to generate optimized images. To enhance the quality of refined images, we propose integrating plugin and modulate plugin modules into the Appending network for style extraction and fusion, leveraging the available information from input images and blending it into the generator. Experimental results demonstrate that our algorithm achieves high-fidelity restoration and excellent generalization, with optimal FID and Lpips metrics of 0.0631 and 0.875, respectively.

Yurui Zhang

and 4 more

Leaf economic spectrum (LES) predicts more carbon (C) investment in the construction of high-density tissues in arid environments, a slow-growing and conservative strategy. Succulent plants have evolved an unique strategy to adapt to drought. However, we are unclear whether and how leaf trait syndromes of succulent plants are involved in LES. Here, we compared a series of leaf traits of 12 succulent plants and 27 non-succulent plants of desert grassland ecosystems in the Hexi Corridor, northwest of China. We observed that leaf trait syndromes markedly differed between succulent plants and non-succulent plants. Specifically, compared with non-succulent plants, succulent plants had low leaf dry matter contents (LDMC), high sponge mesophyll fraction, low palisade mesophyll fraction, and low vein density and fraction. In contrast, no significant differences in dry mass per leaf area (LMA), leaf nitrogen concentration (LNC) and leaf phosphorous concentration (LPC) between succulent plants and non-succulent plants were detected. Moreover, we observed that LDMC of succulent plants was negatively correlated with sponge mesophyll fraction and positively with palisade mesophyll fraction, while LDMC of non-succulent plants was positively correlated with vein fraction per leaf volume.These findings indicate that, analogous to non-succulent plants that invest more C to construct high-density tissue to tolerate drought, succulent plants invest more C to construct low-density tissue, a specialized water-storing mesophyll, to alleviate the dependence on soil water supply. Therefore, these results highlight that specialized water-storing tissues should be recognized as important conservative traits of succulent plants, but leading to deviations from LES-prediction. These findings would extend our knowledge on the application of LES to some specialized plants adapted to the stressed environments.

Margaret Corley

and 47 more

The Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, is currently the most widespread invasive mosquito species in the world. It poses a significant threat to human health, as it is a vector for several arboviruses. We used a SNP chip to genotype 748 Ae. albopictus mosquitoes from 41 localities across Europe, 28 localities in the native range in Asia, and four in the Americas. Using multiple algorithms, we examined population genetic structure and differentiation within Europe and across our global dataset to gain insight into the origin of the invasive European populations. We also compared results from our SNP data to those obtained using genotypes from 11 microsatellite loci (N=637 mosquitoes from 25 European localities) to explore how sampling effort and the type of genetic marker used may influence conclusions about Ae. albopictus population structure. While some analyses detected more than 20 clusters worldwide, we found mosquitoes could be grouped into seven distinct genetic clusters, with most European populations originating in East Asia (Japan or China). Interestingly, some populations in Eastern Europe did not share genetic ancestry with any populations from the native range or Americas, indicating that these populations originated from areas not sampled in this study. The SNP and microsatellite datasets found similar patterns of genetic differentiation in Europe, but the microsatellite dataset could not detect the more subtle genetic structure revealed using SNPs. Overall, data from the SNP chip offered a higher resolution for detecting the genetic structure and the potential origins of invasions.
Cognitive Biases in Decision Making Aditya Chauhan 11 High School Student, Department of Science, GD Goenka Public School, Kashipur, India*Correspondence should be addressed to Aditya Chauhan; [email protected] © 2024 Made Aditya Chauhan.ABSTRACT: Cognitive biases, which are inherent in decision making, are highly present and impact judgments and decisions, which cause systematic errors. This research focuses on the universality of the cognitive bias and how it emerged, how it appears and how it can affect decision making across each genre. As it is realized, biases like confirmation biases, availability heuristic and anchoring compromise the rational decision-making models, resulting in non-optimal decisions. Based on the synthesis of literature and research findings of organizational scholars, this paper explains how these biases emerge, when they are most likely to occur, and how their detrimental impact can be managed. The results therefore support the need to employ increased attention and sensitivity in organisational profiles to counteract the effect of integrated TOQ biases, which may disrupt the quality of the decisions made by professionals. In this way, there is a possibility of improving the decision-making spectrum and coming up with better decisions that are both purposive and adaptive with regards to the long-term objectives. It can be considered that this research adds knowledge to the study of cognitive biases and their impact and influence to key decisions that can be made. KEYWORDS: Cognitive biases, decision-making, confirmation bias, availability heuristic, anchoring, rational thinking, judgment errors, mitigation strategies, empirical evidence, behavioral economics. 1.INTRODUCTIONBackground and Importance Cognitive bias is a specific type of a systematic deviation from the norm that affect the judgment and decision making of people. These biases stem from the phenomenon of using heuristics in the brain since they ease processing of information as measured by the need for cognition scale. On one hand they can be effective to help people make quick decisions especially during pressure filled situations on the other hand heuristics make people bias when making their decision making hence coming up with wrong decisions. For example, confirmation bias or the inclination to seek, interpret, and remember information that support initial assumptions may solidify false arriving at conclusions. Likewise, the availability heuristic that sought to establish the likelihood of an event through ease of which examples come to one’s mind influences risk perception. The following are implications of cognitive biases especially in activities that take place in business, healthcare and public policy arenas: It is important to identify and appreciate these biases since they result in inefficiencies, ranging from incorrect investment decisions to poor policy choices hence influencing the success of an individual or an organization.Objectives and Significance  The main purpose of this study is to examine how and why cognitive biases affect decision making and how the impact can be minimized. It is expected that by examining development and outward expressions of such prejudices, this work will reveal a detailed picture of the ways particular biases colour logical reasoning. Additionally, the research aims at raising awareness of the importance of mitigating cognitive biases at the workplace as decisions with high(stakes) implications are made. Thus, increasing awareness and stimulating the production of interventions promotes efficient decision-making on the part of an individual or organization: decisions that would be more reasonable, better grounded in fact, more consistent with long-term objectives. The relevance of this study is the possibility to expand the knowledge of cognitive biases and provide specific recommendations on how to reduce their impact on decision-making in high-risk situations.Research Questions and Hypotheses This research is guided by several key questions: What are the genesis of cognitive biases and what process underpin them? In what ways does these biases appear in different decisions, especially in situations where there risks in the decisions that are made? It is really important to question: what can be done in order to reduce the effect of cognitive biases in decision making? Based on these questions, the following hypotheses are proposed: Based on these questions, the following hypotheses are proposed: Cognitive biases are automatic thinking patterns anchored in the brain’s use of heuristics that though good for immediate decision making result in biases. The prevalence and impact of specific biases vary depending on the context, with certain biases being more dominant in particular decision-making scenarios. Mere debiasing techniques and decisional aids can be a very effective way of minimizing or altogether avoiding the impact of cognitive biases and make decisions more rational \cite{Cacioppo_1982}. These hypotheses will also be examined in this research with the help of an extensive review of the literature that will be supported by the empirical data needed to help manage cognitive biases in decision-making. 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK2.1 Definition and Conceptualization of Cognitive Biases Cognitive biases are systematic errors in reasoning arising from the way people’s minds works and result in irrational decisions. These are ingrained in the psychological mechanisms by which human mind interprets and assesses data and as such are likely to lead to systematic and recurrent errors. In its broadest sense, cognitive biases refer to tendencies or ways through which people process information that places them in a position to make a premised decision. They stem from individuals’ attempts to make decisions by using rules of thumb often referred to as heuristics since they may increase convenience but decrease accuracy in conveying and evaluating information. Cognitive biases are confirmation bias whereby people tend to consider information which supports their perspective and the anchoring bias that is the initial information phrase that strongly influences concrete evaluations. Cognitive biases are not just wastes or mistakes; they are systematized and recurrent, featuring in choices ranging from trivial to strategic and in every field of endeavor from business to medicine. It is critical to recognize such biases in order to enhance decision making since they are such a natural part of the process.2.2 Overview of Decision Making Decision making is a sophisticated cognitive activity, in which a person has several choices open and has to choose one of the options available to him. Many times it is in the form of a process with phases that are the identification of a problem, data collection, options appraisal and selection of the right solution. Decision-making can be divided into two primary types: Perception and learning styles of this generation can be categorized as being both intuitive and analytical. A rational system of decision making is systematic and it is based on the process that involves the use of ‘rules of thumb’ or heuristics and prior experience. Decision making is some times fast and it is often used where fast decisions are required. Analytical decision making, however is more slow and deliberate where one has to take some time to analyze the data and reach a conclusion using logic \cite{da}. This type of decision-making is applied where there are a lot of risks involved in decision-making processes, and a lot of clear and serious planning. In the decision-making process, systematic and random decisions always play a critical role, but they are always bound to have cognitive biases. Intuitive solutions are particularly vulnerable to biases, particularly since they are reached on the basis of heuristics while analytic solutions may be impacted by biases during the process of information evaluation. The nature of these processes as well as the cognitive biases have significant impact on decision making, thus the need to understand them better in improving decision making \cite{c7bmrl}.2.3 Exploration of the Association between Cognitive Biases and Decisions Heuristic and Systematic cues affect decision making significantly as the outcomes obtained are rarely rational or optimal. These biases alter how people perceive and process information as well as influence their decision making processes. For instance, in using the availability heuristic, one is likely to arrive at wrong evaluations due to overestimation of risk that is bound to occur in cases whose incidents are easily remembered. Also, there is a confirmation bias which can cause positive-negative frame of reference, which only accepts information in favor of its hypothesis and disregards the rest. In most career areas including the business environment or healthcare, such biases result in decisions that do not correspond to rational behavior or desirable goals and objectives thus impacting the performance and efficiency of organizations negatively. Thus learning about the connection that cognitive bias has with the decision making process it becomes easy to minimize its impact on the decision making process leading to better decision making all through \cite{Sternberg_2020}. 2.4 Relevant Theories Some theories reveal more about cognitive biases and their interaction with decisions and decision making. Some of the widely accepted theories are as follows: One of the most popular theories is Prospect Theory formulated by Kahneman and Tversky. According to Prospect Theory the decision-maker perceives gains and losses differently, which often results in mistrust to risk in the context of gains and desperation in the context of loss. This theory involves the effects of various cognitive biases including the loss aversion when making decisions under risk. Another relevant theory is the Dual-process Theory, which posits that human thinking operates through two systems: Slow and effortful, known as System 2 and the Fast and Automatic System is known as System 1 which is characterized by biases. While the System 1 offers a fast and intuitive decision-making system, it contains biases The System 2 is somewhat less partial to biases, yet it is more time-consuming. These theories therefore emphasize about the fact that the decision making is not very simple and the cognitive bias is very much influential in determining the results. Subsumed under this stream of research, this work shall seek to develop a framework that synthesizes theoretical ideas formulated from the described theoretical perspectives to address the concerns relating to cognitive biases in decision-making.3. TYPES OF COGNITIVE BIASES3.1 Anchoring Bias Anchoring bias is a cognitive effect whereby people build decisions on the first piece of information they come across known as the “anchor”. This bias takes place even within this type of anchor if it is incorrect or includes incorrect information. For instance, in bargaining, the initial anchor always shapes the others, irrespective of their worthiness; this is true despite the fact that the first offer may not hold any realistic value. Stable evidence confirms that even ridiculous numbers act as anchors in Affecting Individuals’ Estimates and Judgements \cite{Tversky_1974}.This tends to result in errors in decision-making, because this bias prevents or severely limits people from having access to other information that may provide different views. If sufficient adjustment is not made to get away from the anchor, people can end up with conclusions that are totally wrong in the context of reality especially when the stakes are high like when predicting an organization’s fiscal performance or when trying to make a decision on a case in law.3.2 Confirmation Bias This is a variety of selective thinking where a person will seek out knowledge that is in harmony with the belief that he or she prefers and ignore knowledge that is inconsistent with that belief. This bias can be seen in; negative or positive selective exposure to information, a tendency to view ambiguous evidence through a-line, and positive or negative selective recall. For example, in a case of political preference, people are likely to read news articles from their preferred political side, which only reinforces their political view \cite{Nickerson_1998}.It does not only affect forming accurate conclusions but also suppresses debates as people become ‘stuck’ with their Bias. The corresponding behavior in decision-making can be highly irrational, as decision makers may fail to include seemingly irrelevant information in their decision-making process and thus make decisions which are based on insufficient or distorted data.3.3 Overconfidence Bias Overconfidence bias relates to situations where a person overestimates his or her knowledge, skills or the forecasting of an event. This bias can occur in a personal level by making judgment or predictions or even in a professional level by making forecasts. For instance overconfidence could be manifested as investors’ tendency to think that they can beat the market whenever they invest with little evidence to support their opinion, thus engaging in high risk taking.   Some studies about self-confidence have demonstrated that overconfidence is more rampant among people with average ability, which they lack self-estimate of themselves. Some of the negative consequences include; An inclination to ignore important data, failure to assess risks appropriately, and poor decisions that perpetuate adverse impacts that would influence decisions made later \cite{Moore_2008}. 3.4 Availability Heuristic The availability heuristic is another cognitive bias whereby people base their estimation of the likelihood of an event on the frequency with which such an event comes to their mind. This bias tends to cause people into over-representing the likelihood of an event in occurrence via the use of past experience and immense memory. For example, when audiences of media are exposed to information concerning natural disasters or the occurrence of recession, it is not uncommon to find a situation where people will develop a wider perception of the threat posed in their region by such incidences for instance a natural calamity or recession, in spite of the fact that statistical analysis may indicate otherwise. In this regard, people develop a perception that can be out of touch with reality and hence they develop irrational fears or set wrong priorities \cite{Tversky_1973}. 3.5 Hindsight Bias Regression inertia, also commonly known as the ‘I-knew-it-all-along’ effect is the phenomenon in which learners and students retrospectively evaluate events as being more predictable than they were in reality. This bias can alter how an individual recalls or reconstructs a decision made and might make people overconfident about the future predictions. For instance, when serial economic shock, there will be people who will say they predicted it when in fact, there is no evidence they ever did. Cognitive errors such as hindsight bias may significantly impair one’s ability to learn from experience due to a person’s inability to fully appreciate the randomness of events \cite{1975}. This bias can also lead to bias assessments and criticism of other people’s decision making and hence hinder constructive feedback and learning in various aspects of life. 3.6 Framing Effect The framing effect is a choice shift in which decision making occurs based on the presentation of information not its substance. This kind of bias is applied in a situation where you are given the same choice but the way you are presented with affects your decision making. For example, in decision making participants are more likely to go for a particular medical treatment when it is referred to as having a 90 percent success rate as opposed to a 10 percent failure rate. However, the framing of the information affects the perception of the decision-makers because how information is presented differs from one statement to another.This bias has important consequences in different settings, such as business marketing, health care, and policy making. In marketing, companies may manipulate products which may have negative flicks, and present them in ways that makes consumers develop positive attitude towards them. In a medical context, how risks and rewards materialise makes a difference in the patient’s decisions on the course of the treatment. While being aware of the framing effect prevents decision-makers from being deceived by the form in which information is presented and helps them to use communication tools to help people make more rational and correct decisions \cite{d}.3.7 Other Common Biases Besides the mentioned above core biases there are several other biases that are frequently found while making decisions. For instance, there is the bandwagon effect in which people change their attitude or behaviors only because other people are doing so, resulting in conformities and group thinking. This bias may lead to inferior decision making since people may silent their own rational mind and conform to the group norm, especially when working in a group setting where an employee’s opinion differing from the rest may not be welcome.Likewise, the Dunning-Kruger effect works in a similar way where people with low ability in a given domain will overestimate their ability in that domain hence promoting indifferent confidence. This can lead to making wrong decisions because those that are afflicted by the Dunning-Kruger effect will not find the information or help they need, because they think they already know enough on the matter. Because knowing and acknowledging them helps to think more critically and make better decisions across different fields, these and several other cognitive biases must be recognized.4. COGNITIVE BIASES IN PERSONAL DECISION MAKING4.1 Role of cognitive biases in everyday decisions Heusdens and Borsboom (2015) concluded that cognitive biases are a very influential aspect of decision making processes in the day to day life of an individual, due to the fact that it outlines on how a person perceives information and also how they make decisions and come up with conclusions. They can influence the perception and judgments of even the most regular decisions like picking the dinner meal, as well as critical decisions in a person’s life such as decision in choosing a career or area to invest in. For example, people often use the availability heuristic in choosing their vacation spot: opting for those places they have seen in commercials or friends’ posts on the internet even if there are equally beautiful places, exist. Likewise, confirmation bias makes people search for information that supports their current preference or belief and not look for all the available choices. Although this makes the process of decision-making much easier it leads to making a choice that is not the best one which underlines the importance of recognizing cognitive biases in the decision-making process to improve the quality of decisions made on a daily basis \cite{2008}. 4.2 Impact on Health, Finance, RelationshipHealth Optimism Bias: People may not really appreciate the chances of acquiring diseases in their lifetime hence adopt poor health habits like taking fatty foods or not exercising at all. Confirmation Bias: They tend to find the evidence that fits their belief about health and ignored the evidence that might urge them to practice healthy lifestyle. FinanceOverconfidence Bias: It could also lead to impulsive investing, where the investors will invest in the stock of their choice at extremely high risk and sometimes without adequate research, thus prompting investors to lose lots of their wealth. Anchoring Bias: This is because; financial choices depend on the first cost or estimated prices may lead people to make decisions based on obsolete or stale information. Relationships Halo Effect: People can have a bright impression of a partner’s personality and do not pay much attention to such negative actions of their partner as selfishness, control, criticism, and so on; in this case, they may experience disappointment or have conflicts in a relationship. Self-Serving Bias: Because people may take credit for the successes of the relationship while bringing complaints and problems that partners create back to the partners, resultant communication clogs the efficient solving of problems. 4.3 Case Study A clear illustrates of cognitive biases in personal decision makings is when a person invested on stocks. Let us look at a case of an investor who has higher gains in a specific share. This might make this individual have an overconfidence bias whereby they think they have better understanding of the market than what is actually the case, or lack of impulse control that makes this individual invest large sums of money into high risk stocks without adequate research. When the market conditions are unfavorable, this bias rears its head for it leads the investor to make wrong decisions thus suffering major losses.Another related case has to do with health behaviors. A study conducted on smokers showed that many of the people had a tendency of underestimating the risk of lung cancer because of optimism bias where the clients believed they could not be part of the statistics. This unstudied optimism worked in their disadvantage by making them fail to take measures to quit smoking thus suffering negative health repercussions that could otherwise could have been averted.Cognitive biases remain prevalent in personal decision-making indicated by the examples above, meaning that more efforts should be devoted to finding ways of minimizing their impact. Thus, increasing awareness and encouraging decision making can lead to optimized results in an individual’s health, finance/wealth, or relationships. 5. COGNITIVE BIASES IN PROFESSIONAL DECISION MAKING5.1 Influence on Workplace Decisions Hiring Practices Similarity Bias: The equality and diversity could be ignored due to the fact that hiring managers tend to go for candidates who have similar attributes to them. Confirmation Bias: It has the problems of being biased, usually when the manager conducting the performance appraisal is only in a position to provide information that confirms to a predetermined style or manner about the employee \cite{Neale_1992}. Project Management Planning Fallacy: It may come as a surprise, but teams usually fail to understand just how much time and effort would be needed in order to finish the work on time and on a set budget. Sunk Cost Fallacy: Experienced decision makers may go ahead to continue funding the unrewarding projects due to commitments rather than engaging in a revised assessment of the projects feasibility \cite{Blumenthal_Barby_2014}. Team DynamicsGroupthink: Conservatism may also become a drawback as people tend not to think critically as they yearn for agreement and thus make wrong strategic choices as creativity is suppressed. Risk Aversion: Teams may not have the creativity to try out new solutions to problems instead, they resort to practices that have been in use hence the lack of brilliant ideas. Communication Framing Effects: This is due to cramming due to the way information is conveyed and as a result there are differences in outcomes due to context rather than content. Availability Heuristic: Decisions may be made based on current or past occurrences and/or events rather than record results or analysis of the records \cite{ab}. 5.2 Impact on Management, Leadership, Organizational behavior When the cognitive bias occurs, it may significantly affect the management, leadership, and overall organizational behavior. For example, it is possible that they will be overconfident and be convinced that their plans and choices cannot go wrong thus undertaking projects with more risk than they can handle and without properly evaluating the risks involved. This can lead to an organizational culture of acceptance of mediocrity, less creativity and an environment where people who have contrary opinions to the leadership are suppressed. Likewise, flaws such as group thinking make it hard to analyze matters critically especially when working in a group and due to the urge to conform everyone agrees even though they have the wrong decision. These biases can also create a culture within the organization because they prevent change and inclusion of new ideas that different people may bring to the organization. failure to consider the following bias means failing to promote a suitable leadership culture by encouraging active and constructive communication. 5.3 Examples and Case Studies One of the classic examples of cognitive bias in professional decision-making is the Blockbuster company story. The organisation’s leaders indulged in overconfidence bias whereby they assumed that their business model because successful in the videos rentals space would continue to be effective, as more companies like Netflix broke into the market. This overestimation of market position hindered their ability to realize changes in the consumers’ market preferences meaning that they could not evolve adequately hence their downfall.One more situational example can be devoted to the tech company’s recruitment procedure. To reduce biases, the organisation used structured interviews but the interviewers themselves succumbed to the confirmation bias in that they only concentrated on the candidates’ documents that supported their given beliefs. This led to the formation of a rather monotonous workforce, with little creativity and variation among employees; it would show that there’s a need for constant training and sensitization on how to eliminate prejudice in hiring processes. These examples share the ways in which cognitive biases influence the workplace and stress the significance of education and counteraction. Thus, awareness of such biases can help and enable the organization to make better decisions, increase the representation of different groups, and increase the efficiency of work to achieve the goals set. 6. MITIGATING COGNITIVE BIASES6.1 Techniques for identifying and reducing biases Preventing cognitive biases is a two-step process consisting of consciousness and the using of organized procedures for minimizing their have an impact. One such technique is the checklists which make the decision makers to think in different perspectives and make them challenge their approaches. For instance, Decision Methods like the ‘Six Thinking Hats’, serve to force more comprehensive examination of issues by requiring one to look at the problem from every perspective. Further, the institution of regular debriefing sessions following major decisions provides a good opportunity to review the process in order to determine if any bias made an impact on the end-result \cite{2009}. This reflective practice not only increases participants’ awareness of their biases but also helps the team members gain an understanding about the biases within the entire team.The first approach involves promoting the use of diversity with work groups allowing for the work group members to engage in meaningful discourse where the dissimilarities can be aired. It also aids in the identification of prejudice, mainly because the diversification in the team encourages the members to question their colleagues’ assumptions \cite{2006}. In addition, feedback processes can be used, in which outcomes of decisions are compared with initial assumptions and help people modify their conceptions in subsequent situations. Frequent renewal of the decision-making focus with an emphasis on the unwillingness of bias detection is one of the key ways to transform organizations’ awareness of biases and enhance the decision quality.6.2 Awareness and Mindfulness in decision-making It is therefore important that employees within organizations receive adequate education and training in order to minimize on cognitive biases. What organizations should consider is to embark on training that deals with cognitive psychology and decision making \cite{2013}. These programs can be useful for the employee in that the employee gains insight into how these biases work and the possible consequences for decision results. If the learning dynamics of the participants involves putting them through an arena as close to the real-life as possible, then it will be a great way to help the participants discover their biases in action. In addition, the use of case problems describing the effects of negative biases that lack moderation can serve as a cautionary example to students \cite{O_Connor_1999}. Lifelong learning can enhance an organizational culture that encourages people to develop the skills to question and learn from their experiences and other people. Biases are embraced and can be made part of the staff’s training so organizations can encourage the staff to make decision with correct information. This approach is unique in a way that it not only helps employees understand the blinders that prevent them from being impartial but also make everyone responsible to be able to scrutinize their decisions and those of others \cite{2011}. 6.3 Awareness and Mindfulness in decision-making This indicates that there is need to foster attention and encourage practicing to be alert and attentive in all the decisions that are made. The cognitive bias may be easily identified by people who use mindfulness in their routine practices like meditation and journaling as it helps them understand what they are thinking. It can also foster greater deliberation because people are more receptive to accepting information that challenges their can introduce concepts which will also help foster proper and deeper thinking because individuals become more receptive to new kinds of information. Also, reputing a culture whereby individuals are encouraged to raise their concerns and problems fosters the reduction of prejudices. One important facet that enables professional teams to provide constructive input is that dissenting viewpoints have been held effective by peers which gives all individuals the confidence to present their views without being judged by groupthink or any such simplified thinking prejudices \cite{Brown_2003}. 6.4 Use of Technology and algorithms It can thus be seen that in dealing with cognitive biases, technology and algorithms could be quite beneficial. Decision support systems that involve the use of analysis of data as a basis for making the decisions eliminate the need to make decisions based on beliefs that are influenced by biases. For instance, it remains possible for an organization to rely on predictive analytics and not the assumptions that might be held on the basis of past experiences. For instance, analytics and self-learning can help in identifying bias in the decision-making processes and thus enable organizations to neutralize them. Yet it is important that the algorithms, at their core, are not prejudiced and do not reiterate the above-mentioned cognitive biases \cite{aa}. Through the integration of human heuristics into big data decision-making methods, organizational decision-making quality will improve apart from controlling cognitive biases hence improving the sectors’ results.  7. IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE BIASES IN VARIOUS FIELDS7.1 Behavioral Economics Biases pertain to thinking, risk/reward, and consumption decisions. Loss Aversion: Lose aversion rationalizes the financial decisions since people admire avoiding loses to getting equivalent gains \cite{Barberis_2003}. Framing Effects: Decisions are highly likely to be influenced by the presentation of options concerning perceived value. Understanding these biases helps economists create strategies that align with actual human behavior \cite{Adkisson_2008}7.2 Healthcare Cognitive biases are highly disruptive leading to incorrect decisions both in the patient’s and the provider’s aspects with significant health understanding \cite{Kahneman_2013}. Availability Heuristic: Patients may read news articles about diseases and may overemphasize their risks of contracting those diseases and end up being anxious or have to undergo tests. Confirmation Bias: Providers might target confirmation of the symptoms that could match the first differential diagnoses thus missing the other diagnoses \cite{Slovic_2006}. Optimism Bias: This may lead to failure on the part of the patients to appreciate Health implications of lifestyles, resulting in worsening of health complications \cite{a}. Addressing these biases can improve communication and enhance healthcare outcomes. 7.3 Law and Policy Making It is very important that all decisions made by the legislators and the judges are not influenced by any cognitive biases within the system. Anchoring Bias: That is why, some judges tend to be overly dependent on the recommendation made at the onset and this in equal measure causes disparity in the sentencing \cite{Sunstein_2005}. Availability Heuristic: Policymakers may focus on subjects that dominate the headlines and could therefore, misallocate resource. Knowledge of these biases should help reduce bias and increase rationality in legal and Public Policymaking processes \cite{2001}. 7.4 Technology and AI Cognition influences how the algorithm is designed and how it is with the users. Biases of developers cause the AI system to bring in stereotypical and inequality, which are wrong. Confirmation Bias: People especially stick to algorithms that pre-empt what they want to learn only to be fed on what they already believe. To eliminate biases the development team must be diverse, algorithms should be clearly revealed and consumers should be informed \cite{2016}. They come from the perspective that biases must be managed in order to enhance fairness and efficiency of technology systems. 8. RECOMMENDATIONSPractical steps for individuals: There are several things that people can do to reduce the impact of the cognitive biases to their decisions making. First, the increase of self-reflecting may contribute to the ability of the individual to notice how they think and feel to have a better chance of noticing bias as it happens. Such a record can empower these people with tools like a decision journal, which will help them keep a record of their actions. Also, checking with others before going to a decision could also mitigate this bias since one is likely to find holes in their reasoning when they explain their thoughts to others. Case discussions and thinking through of the different scenarios on how things could be differently could also help give a balanced approach and improve the decision making. Organizational policies and practices: Cognitive biases should be recognized and prevented in organizations through the development of proper policies and measures that will help in this cause. This can involve daily, weekly or monthly training sessions that may involve the review of the common and relevant cognitive biases, decision making and critical thinking. Decision biases can be reduced through implementing standard decision-making template like using checklists and decision-making panels in strategic decisions. Promoting healthy communication and positive feedback means that employees within the group shall come up with complaints and negative opinions hence avoiding the situation where they all think that they are wrong to think like that. Also, the decision, outcomes should be checked periodically and analyzed for bias patterns with necessary changes implementation.  Suggestions for policymakers and educators:  This is a major role of policymakers and educators who have the responsibility of managing and ironing out on cognition bias at a systemic level. The current and future policymakers should perhaps adopt policies which seek to encourage organizations to be more open in their decision making especially to allow everyone to give their opinion. Using BI in policy making can also enable the policy maker to come up with better policies, which address human behavior. For educators, it is possible to incorporate the concepts of cognitive bias and critical thinking into lessons for students in order to enable the latter to deal with bias in their own decision processes \cite{2013a}. Promoting collaborative learning increases students ‘perception of plurality that may in turn help cultivate a generation of informed decision makers. By taking these steps, both policymakers and educators can contribute to a more aware and bias-sensitive society.9. FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS9.1 Emerging areas of Study With the development of the so-called cognitive heuristics literature, several novel research themes are called for discussion. An area of development seems to be the integration of cognition’s interface with behavioral and neuroeconomics to explain how brain functioning leads to biased decisions. However, there are concerns that continuity led to a reinforcement of the cognitive biases that surfaced from the investigations conducted in digital environments of social media and algorithm-driven content. It is thereby possible, to grasp how these platforms increase or decrease biases, that is helpful insights about users’ behaviors and decisions. Additionally, additional studies that explain cultural differences in response to such cognitive biases can also improve the current cultural theories of the way societies approach decision making hence improving on the current cultural interventions \cite{Mellers_1998}. 9.2 Potential Applications The use of research in cognitive biases holds a great and significant effect across multiple areas. In medical practice, data derived from cognitive bias studies can be applied in the design of educational modules for health care personnel, with a view of improving diagnosis and patients’ interaction. Applied to organizational environments, they can inform the development of the decision making procedures that would reduce prejudicial effects and enhance productivity in areas such as staffing, project work and leadership. Cognitive biases can be taken into consideration by policymakers by using research to enhance the interventions thereby contributing to the formulation of better polices \cite{Raghunathan_1999}. Also, the increase in awareness of the bias also enables institutions to apply the information and findings to their education systems hence preparing the people of the future to avoid biases in their daily lives. 9.3 Suggested Methodologies Thus, it falls for future research to use both quantitative and qualitative research paradigms including surveys and experiments on the one hand and interviews and case studies on the other hand. This feature can give a broad perception of bias in cognition hence a more profound approach of studying the bias in various contexts. Longitudinal research can also be helpful in determining the shift in biases with the help of various interventions or changes in environments \cite{2013b}. 9.4 Ethical Considerations Conflicts of oprn ethical nature supervene when investigating CBs, especially those that point to the possibility of intentional influence of the decision-making mechanisms. The participants are the main subject of research and thus have to find ways of protecting the participants from harm, especially where they are likely to be deceived into participating in an experiment. In addition, generalization of results must be done with great consideration, mainly given the applications impacts in susceptible users \cite{Becker_2017}. There is need to encourage the right use of cognitive bias research, especially in the implementation of bias reduction measures that create further segregations. CONCLUSION The present research paper has substantiated and demonstrated that cognitive bias influences decision-making in behavioral economics, healthcare, law and technology in different ways. Key findings that are studied include aspects like loss aversion, confirmation bias, the framing effect and generally they show how rational decision making is overridingly influenced resulting in what can be termed as near optimal choices. Furthermore, the identification of the Types of Specific Personal and Professional Decision-Making Contexts pointed out to the fact that there is an urgent need to address the above biases. Thus, through structured decision-making tools’ usage, as well as raising awareness about the problem, the quality of decision-making can be enhanced and negative impact of cognitive biases – minimized. It is now critical to be aware of cognitive biases in today’s challenging and rapidly changing environment where decisions are made based on incomplete and sometimes uncertain information. The significance of acknowledging these biases is the kind of impact that these have on a person’s actions and his/her decisions. Thus, when people know how these and other cognitive biases work, they can gain better control over their flawed, irrational tendency and contribute positively to the self and society. The findings of this study are therefore very important in emphasizing the need for continuing education and training and also valuing critical learning environments. The findings of this research have their applications in several perspectives in several endeavors affecting individuals, organizations and the government. Implementing measures to self-insight or specially to avoid cognitive biases can improve decision making in what concerns health care, business environment or politics. Schools, colleges and universities can act as catalysts and ensure that the next generation of leaders learns how to best deal with the biases and prejudices that will exist in their society. In conclusion, it is important to recognize that people are not rational and the analysis of cognitive biases applied to decision making supports this fact. Going forward as we find ourselves in an ever-complicated society, self-identification of the bias and its subsequent elimination will be critical in encouraging appropriate decision-making. Subsequent studies should endeavor to uncover more about these biases and look for efficient ways of eliminating the bias influence on people’s decisions so that the decisions made are accurate, fair, and moral.CONFLICTS OF INTEREST The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Teresa Rosa

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Background: Established or ongoing septic arthritis requiring repeated joint flushing remains a treatment challenge with a poor survival outcome aggravated by the necessicity of controlled antimicrobial usage. Objective: To describe the outcomes and survival rates of patients with synovial sepsis treated by lavage with a 0.05% chlorhexidine solution. Study design: Clinical retrospective observational study. Methods: Patients with synovial sepsis who underwent standing needle or arthroscopic lavage under general anaesthesia with a 0.05% chlorhexidine solution, followed by Lactate Ringer Solution (LRS). Complementary systemic and regional antibiotics were used. Short (6 months) and long term (>1 year) evolution were assessed. Results: 10 horses met the inclusion criteria. Affected joints included metacarpophalangeal joints (20%), tarso-crural joint (10%), radiocarpal and intercarpal joints (20%), distal interphalangeal joints and navicular bursa (30%), distal interphalangeal joints (20 %). Time from onset to referral ranged from 1-20 days, mean 8.3 days. Eighty percent of horses survived for more than one year. Four horses were retired to the field, three returned to a light level of work and one went back to full work. Main limitations: Retrospective study of a limited group of horses initially treated by different clinicians before referral, as such, first line treatment had differences between cases. Resolution was evaluated on clinical signs rather than clinical pathology of synovial fluid due to clinical decision or difficulty in obtaining samples. Conclusion: With this series of challenging synovial sepsis cases treated by lavage with a chlorhexidine solution we provide a treatment protocol, proof of clinical concept and report patient’s short and long-term clinical evolution. Short and long term post-operative lameness should be expected despite resolution of the septic arthritis. This treatment poses a novel option for challenging cases but should be regarded as a salvage procedure due to the possibility of long term mild lameness.

Grace Pigott

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C.T. O’Connor

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Kawakawa ( Macropiper excelsum), is an endemic plant of Aotearoa New Zealand. Kawakawa holds cultural significance to Māori as a rākau rongoā (medicinal plant). Kawakawa is traditionally used internally to relieve gastrointestinal and genitourinary problems as well as topically to treat a range of skin conditions and may have anti-diabetic properties. The kawakawa looper/whangawhanga ( Cleora scriptaria) creates characteristic holes in kawakawa leaves and traditional mātauranga Māori (Māori knowledge) has identified that leaves eaten by the caterpillars have greater healing properties. To substantiate this traditional knowledge, we used Rapid Evaporative Ionisation Mass Spectrometry (REIMS), a metabolomics fingerprinting technique that does not require sample preparation and is suitable for spatial analysis, to measure metabolite differences between leaves exposed to different caterpillars. Three species; brindled bell moth ( Epalxiphora axenana), brown headed leafroller ( Ctenopseustis obliquana), and kawakawa looper ( Cleora scriptaria), were fed on kawakawa leaves. Leaves with and without caterpillar damage were harvested from plants, adhering to Māori principles (tikanga), and stored at -80°C. REIMS with a laser interface was used to generate metabolite fingerprints from caterpillar eaten and non-eaten sections from the same leaf and other non-eaten leaves from the same plant, and differences determined using multivariate modelling. There were substantial differences in the metabolomic fingerprint between eaten and non-eaten leaves of the same kawakawa plants, and of uneaten leaves from plants that had no insect herbivory. We found no difference between artificially hole punched leaves and non-eaten leaves, suggesting that metabolic variation in leaves is due to the interaction between caterpillars and leaves. Further, differences were observed between eaten leaves of the three caterpillar species emphasising the specificity of plant responses to herbivore feeding. Our results support the mātauranga that the caterpillar causes a change in plant chemical composition, potentially increasing the plant’s medicinal value.

Julian Karoliny

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In wireless communications, trustworthiness computation has emerged as a crucial aspect of safeguarding modern systems against cybersecurity threats, ensuring reliable data transmission and upholding user trust. However, there is no unified definition of trustworthiness computation in the literature, and it is often presented as a specifically tailored adaptation of attack detection mechanisms. In contrast, this work introduces a general method for trustworthiness computation in wireless networks. It leverages key system characteristics, such as the channel, timing, and packet information to identify measurable Quality of Service (QoS) features with sufficient sensitivity across varying operational conditions.  Building on these features, a novel three-step approach is applied. It employs changepoint detection to identify potential trustworthiness issues, calculates indicators based on the observed features, and finally combines them into a quantitative representation of trustworthiness. This systematic method effectively distinguishes between regular statistical variations in QoS features and actual trustworthiness issues. The applicability of the presented approach is demonstrated using a typical IEEE 802.11 wireless link, where different QoS features and scenarios are defined. These scenarios include network attacks, system malfunctions, and typical operational conditions.  Our trustworthiness computation method correctly alerts the system to all trustworthiness issues that we challenge it with.

Ali Saeibehrouzi

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Solute transport in unsaturated porous media is of interest in many engineering and environmental applications. The interplay between small-scale, local forces and the porous microstructure exerts a strong control on the transport of fluids and solutes at the larger, macroscopic scales. Heterogeneity in pore geometry is intrinsic to natural materials across a large range of scales. This multiscale nature, and the intricate links between two-phase flow and solute transport, remain far from well understood, by and large. Here, we use high-resolution direct simulation to quantify solute mixing and dispersion behavior within correlated porous media during drainage under an unfavorable viscosity ratio. Through analysis of flow and transport at multiple realizations, we find that increasing spatial correlations in pore sizes increase the size of the required Representative Elementary Volume (REV). We show that increasing the correlation length enhances solute dispersivity through its impact on the spatial distribution of low-velocity (diffusion-dominated) and high-velocity (advection-dominated) regions. Fluid saturation is shown to directly affect diffusive mass flux among high-and low-velocity zones. Another indirect effect of correlated heterogeneity on solute transport is through its control of the drainage patterns via repeated alteration in the connectivity of flowing pathways. Our findings improve quantitative understanding of solute mixing and dispersion under two-phase conditions, highly relevant to some of our most urgent environmental problems.

Florian Stroebl

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Optimal Experimental Design (OED) aims to maximize information about model parameters with minimal experiments. Methodically, OED is based on the principle of maximizing Fisher information. The calculation of an optimized test plan thereby requires a qualified estimate, i.e. a priori information, about the true value of the parameters to be estimated. This paper introduces a novel Multi-Stage Optimal Experimental Design (MS-OED) framework that integrates Latin Hypercube (LH) sampling and OED for scenarios lacking prior system knowledge. The Virtual Experimental Framework (VEF) evaluates multiple experimental setups, assessing their impact on parameter estimation accuracy. Applied to lithium ion (Li-ion) battery calendar aging, our MS-OED framework demonstrates, that reducing the duration of initial LH experiments allows for more effective subsequent OED stages, achieving a 92% reduction in the standard deviation of parameter estimates compared to single-stage design of experiments (DoE). This approach also reduces the experimental duration required to achieve similar confidence levels in parameter estimation to 32% of the time needed by conventional single-stage DoE. Sensitivity analysis further confirms the robustness of the pi-OED approach against uncertainties in initial parameter estimates for the given parametric model. The results highlight the framework's potential to significantly enhance the efficiency and accuracy of experiments, particularly in applications where prior knowledge is limited.

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