Supercooled liquid clouds are ubiquitous over the Southern Ocean (SO), even to temperatures below -20 °C, and comprise a large fraction of the marine boundary layer (MBL) clouds. Earth system models and reanalysis products have struggled to reproduce the observed cloud phase distribution and occurrence of cloud ice in the region. Recent simulations found the microphysical representation of ice nucleation and growth has a large impact on these properties, however, measurements of SO ice nucleating particles (INPs) to validate simulations are sparse. This study presents measurements of INPs from simultaneous aircraft and ship campaigns conducted over the SO in austral summer 2018, which include the first in situ observations in and above cloud in the region. Our results confirm recent observations that INP concentrations are uniformly lower than measurements made in the late 1960s. While INP concentrations below and above cloud are similar, higher ice nucleation efficiency above cloud supports model inferences that the dominant INP composition varies with height. Model parameterizations based solely on aerosol properties capture the mean relationship between INP concentration and temperature but not the observed variability, which is likely related to the only modest correlations observed between INPs and environmental or aerosol metrics. An updated parameterization for marine INPs is proposed, which reduces bias relative to existing methods by including wind speed as an additional variable. Direct and indirect inference of marine INP size suggests MBL INPs, at least those in the sub-2.5 μm range, are dominated by particles with diameters smaller than 500 nm.

Southern Ocean (SO) clouds are critical for climate prediction. Yet, previous global climate models failed to accurately represent cloud phase distributions in this observation-sparse region. In this study, data from the Southern Ocean Clouds, Radiation, Aerosol, Transport Experimental Study (SOCRATES) experiment is compared to constrained simulations from a global climate model (the Community Atmosphere Model, CAM). Nudged versions of CAM are found to reproduce many of the features of detailed in-situ observations, such as cloud location, cloud phase and boundary layer structure. The simulation in the latest versions of the model has improved its representation of SO clouds with adjustments to the ice nucleation and cloud microphysics schemes that permit more supercooled liquid. Initial comparisons between modeled and observed hydrometeor size distributions suggest that the modeled hydrometeor size distributions are close to observed distributions, which is remarkable given the scale difference between model and observations. Comparison to satellite observations of cloud physics is difficult due to model assumptions that do not match retrieval assumptions. Some biases in the model’s representation of SO clouds and aerosols remain, but the detailed cloud physical parameterization provides a basis for process level improvement and direct comparisons to observations. This is critical because cloud feedbacks and climate sensitivity are sensitive to the representation of Southern Ocean clouds.