Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) vary not only due to heat exchange across the air-sea interface but also due to changes in effective heat capacity as primarily determined by mixed layer depth (MLD). Here, we investigate seasonal and regional characteristics of the contribution of MLD anomalies to SST variability using observational datasets. We propose a metric called Flux Divergence Angle (FDA), which can quantify the relative contributions of surface heat fluxes and MLD anomalies to SST variability. Using this metric, we find that MLD anomalies tend to amplify SST anomalies in the extra-tropics, especially in the eastern ocean basins, during spring and summer. This amplification is explained by a positive feedback loop between SST and MLD via upper ocean stratification. In contrast, MLD anomalies tend to suppress SST anomalies in the eastern tropical Pacific. The MLD contribution in the summer hemispheres is more pronounced on seasonal timescales than on sub-monthly timescales.

Malaria poses a great challenge for the maintenance of good public health and sustenance of human wellbeing in many parts of the world. Apparently, the anthropogenic global warming has expanded the spatio-temporal extent of the disease; incidences are now reported beyond tropics and in non-endemic seasons. This emerging trend of climate change has increased the malaria risk factor for millions more across the globe. While global warming remains a key factor to address the future adaptations and mitigation measures, the existing association between climate and malaria prevalence needs careful observations and analyses besides the non-climatic factors. Such a climate association is investigated here with the available malaria case counts in the northeastern districts of South Africa. It is found that the regional variations in seasonal rainfall and temperature, that primarily control mosquito population and thereby infection rates, are linked with a basin-scale climate phenomenon manifested as a dipole pattern in the interannual anomalies of sea surface temperature (SST) of southwestern Indian Ocean. In addition to the year-to-year variations, partly related to the basin warming, a decadal shift in the SST dipole pattern, and associated decrease in seasonal rainfall, leads to decreasing number of case counts in recent years as indicated by the malaria records.

Warm sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies have been observed in the subtropical North Pacific around Hawaii in the recent decade, appearing from 2013. We examined the formation mechanisms of the warm SST anomalies in terms of relative contribution of atmospheric surface forcing and oceanic dynamics, using the latest reanalysis products from ECMWF (ERA5 for atmosphere and ORAS5 for ocean). Results of the mixed layer temperature budget diagnosis in the target area (10-20˚N and 180˚-160˚W) indicates that contributions from anomalous latent heat fluxes to the subtropical SST anomalies are dominant. Oceanic advective contributions are relatively small, dampen the SST anomalies, and are negatively correlated (r = –0.38) with the latent heat fluxes. For example, the +1.0K SST increased from 2011 to 2015 results from +1.5K contributions from sum of surface heat flux and –0.5K from meridional oceanic advection. The anti-correlation between atmospheric forcing and oceanic meridional advection reflects co-variations of wind-driven latent heat flux and meridional Ekman advection due to the weakening of the zonal component of the surface winds.