Evaporation decreases the mass and increases the isotope composition of falling drops. Combining and integrating the dependence of the evaporation on the drop diameter and on the drop-environment humidity difference, the square of drop diameter is found to decrease with the square of vertical distance below cloud base. Drops smaller than 0.5 mm evaporate completely before falling 700 m in typical subtropical marine boundary layer conditions. The effect on the isotope ratio of equilibration with the environment, evaporation, and kinetic molecular diffusion is modeled by molecular and eddy diffusive fluxes after Craig and Gordon (1965), with a size-dependent parameterization of diffusion that enriches small drops more strongly, and approaches the rough aerodynamic limit for large drops. Rain shortly approaches a steady state with the subcloud vapor by exchange with a length scale of 40 m. Kinetic molecular diffusion enriches drops up to as they evaporate by up to +5~\permil~for deuterated water (HDO) and +3.5~\permil~for H$_2$$^{18}$O. Rain evaporation enriches undiluted subcloud vapor by +12~\permil~per mm rain, explaining enrichment of vapor in evaporatively cooled downdrafts that contribute to cold pools. Microphysics enriches the vapor lost by the early and complete evaporation of smaller drops in the distribution. Vapor from hydrometeors is more enriched than it would be by Rayleigh distillation or by mixtures of liquid rain and vapor in equilibrium with rain.

Aerosol-cloud-precipitation interactions are a leading source of uncertainty in estimating climate sensitivity. Remote marine boundary layers where accumulation mode (~100-400 nm diameter) aerosol concentrations are relatively low are very susceptible to aerosol changes. These regions also experience heightened Aitken mode aerosol (~10-100 nm) concentrations associated with ocean biology. Aitken aerosols may significantly influence cloud properties and evolution by replenishing cloud condensation nuclei and droplet number lost through precipitation (i.e., Aitken buffering). We use a large-eddy simulation with an Aitken-mode enabled microphysics scheme to examine the role of Aitken buffering in a mid-latitude decoupled boundary layer cloud regime observed on July 15, 2017 during the ACE-ENA flight campaign: cumulus rising into stratocumulus under elevated Aitken concentrations (~100-200 mg-1). In situ measurements are used to constrain and evaluate this case study. Our simulation accurately captures observed aerosol-cloud-precipitation interactions and reveals time-evolving processes driving regime development and evolution. Aitken activation into the accumulation mode occurs primarily in the cumulus layer, providing a reservoir for turbulence and convection to carry accumulation aerosols into the drizzling stratocumulus layer above. Thus, the cloud regime is buffered against precipitation removal, reducing cloud break-up and associated increases in heterogeneity. We examine cloud evolution sensitivity to initial aerosol conditions. With halved accumulation number, Aitken aerosols restore accumulation concentrations, maintain droplet number similar to original values, and prevent cloud break-up. Without Aitken aerosols, precipitation-driven cloud break-up occurs rapidly. In this regime, mesoscale and synoptic-scale uplift enhance cloud condensate and brightness, but Aitken buffering sustains brighter, more homogeneous clouds for longer.

Cirrus dominate the longwave radiative budget of the tropics. For the first time, we quantify the variability in cirrus properties and longwave cloud radiative effects (CREs) that arises from differences in microphysics within nudged global storm-resolving simulations from a single model. Nudging allows us to compute radiative biases precisely using coincident satellite measurements and to fix the large-scale dynamics across our set of simulations and isolate the influence of microphysics. We run five-day simulations with four commonly-used microphysics schemes of varying complexity (SAM1MOM, Thompson, M2005 and P3) and find that the tropical average longwave CRE varies over 20 W m$^{-2}$ between schemes. P3 best reproduces observed longwave CRE. M2005 and P3 simulate cirrus with realistic frozen water path but unrealistically high ice crystal number concentrations which commonly hit limiters and lack the variability and dependence on frozen water content seen in aircraft observations. Thompson and SAM1MOM have too little cirrus.

Observed stratocumulus to cumulus transitions (SCT) and their sensitivity to aerosols are studied using a Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) model that simulates the aerosol lifecycle, including aerosol sources and sinks. To initialize, force, and evaluate the LES, we used a combination of reanalysis, satellite, and aircraft data from the 2015 Cloud System Evolution in the Trades field campaign over the Northeast Pacific. The simulations follow two Lagrangian trajectories from initially overcast stratocumulus to the tropical shallow cumulus region near Hawaii. The first trajectory is characterized by an initially clean, well-mixed stratocumulus-topped marine boundary layer (MBL), then continuous MBL deepening and precipitation onset followed by a clear SCT and a consistent reduction of aerosols that ultimately leads to an ultra-clean layer in the upper MBL. The second trajectory is characterized by an initially polluted and decoupled MBL, weak precipitation, and a late SCT. Overall, the LES simulates the observed general MBL features. Sensitivity studies with different aerosol initial and boundary conditions reveal aerosol-induced changes in the transition, and albedo changes are decomposed into the Twomey effect and adjustments of cloud liquid water path and cloud fraction. Impacts on precipitation play a key role in the sensitivity to aerosols: for the first case, runs with enhanced aerosols exhibit distinct changes in microphysics and macrophysics such as enhanced cloud droplet number concentration, reduced precipitation, and delayed SCT. Cloud adjustments are dominant in this case. For the second case, enhancing aerosols does not affect cloud macrophysical properties significantly, and the Twomey effect dominates.

The extension of a cloud-resolving model, the System for Atmospheric Modeling (SAM), to global domains is described. The resulting global model, gSAM, is formulated on a latitude-longitude grid. It uses an anelastic dynamical core with a single reference profile (as in SAM), but its governing equations differ somewhat from other anelastic models. For quasi-hydrostatic flows, they are isomorphic to the primitive equations in pressure coordinates, but with the globally uniform reference pressure playing the role of actual pressure. As a result, gSAM can exactly maintain steady zonally symmetric baroclinic flows that have been specified in pressure coordinates, produces accurate simulations when initialized or nudged with global reanalyses, and has a natural energy conservation equation, despite the drawbacks of using the anelastic system to model global scales. gSAM employs a novel treatment of topography using a type of immersed boundary method, the Quasi-Solid Body Method (QSBM), where the instantaneous flow velocity is forced to stagnate in grid cells inside prescribed terrain. The results of several standard tests designed to evaluate accuracy of global models with and without topography as well as results from real-Earth simulations are presented.

The isotopic composition of water vapor (e.g. its Deuterium content) evolves along the water cycle as phase changes are associated with isotopic fractionation. In the tropics, it is especially sensitive to convective processes. Consequently the isotopic composition of precipitation recorded in paleoclimate archives has significantly contributed to the reconstruction of past hydrological changes. It has also been suggested that observed isotopic composition of water vapor could help better understand convective processes and evaluate their representation in climate models. Yet, water isotopes remain rarely used beyond the isotopic community to answer today’s pressing climate questions. A prerequisite to better assess the strengths and weaknesses of the isotopic tool is to better understand what controls spatio-temporal variations in water vapor isotopic composition through the tropical atmosphere. A first step towards this better understanding is to understand what controls the isotopic composition of the sub-cloud layer water vapor over the ocean. Isotopic measurements show that the water vapor is the most enriched in trade-wind regions, and becomes more depleted as precipitation increases. To understand this pattern, we use global simulations with the isotope-enabled general circulation model LMDZ, large-eddy simulation in radiative-convective equilibrium and with large-scale ascent or descent, with the isotope-enabled model SAM and simple analytical models. We show that increased precipitation rate is associated with increased isotopic depletion if it is associated with stronger large-scale ascent, but with decreased isotopic depletion if it is associated with warmer surface temperature. As large-scale ascent increases, the isotopic vertical gradient in the lower troposphere is steeper, which makes downdrafts and updrafts more efficient in depleting the sub-cloud layer water vapor. The steeper gradient is caused mainly by the larger quantity of snow falling down to the melting level, forming rain whose evaporation depletes the water vapor.