Evapotranspiration (ET) is a key process in the hydrological cycle that can help mitigate urban heat. ET depends on the surface cover, as the surface affects the partitioning of precipitation between runoff and evapotranspiration. In urban neighborhoods, this surface cover is highly heterogeneous. The resulting neighborhood-scale ET is observed with eddy-covariance systems. However, these observations represent the signal from wind- and stability-dependent footprints resulting in a continuously changing surface cover composition. This continuous change prevents quantitative analysis of the separate types. Here, we disentangle this neighborhood-scale ET at two urban sites in Berlin attributing the ET dynamics to the four major surface cover types in the footprint: impervious surfaces, low vegetation, high vegetation, and open water. Starting from the surface, we reconstruct ET based on patch-scale observations and conceptual models. Alternatively, we start with the eddy-covariance observations and attribute ET to the surface cover types solving a system of equations for four eddy-covariance systems with different footprints. Although starting at the surface yields more robust results, both approaches indicate that vegetation is responsible for more ET than proportional to its surface fraction, and evaporation from impervious surfaces although less cannot be neglected. We confirm the intuitive relation between ET and the surface cover fractions based on a wide range of surface compositions.

Long-term data are crucial for understanding ecological responses to climate and land use change; they are also vital evidence for informing management. As a migratory fish, Atlantic salmon are sentinels of both global and local environmental change. This paper reviews the main insights from six decades of research in an upland Scottish stream (Girnock Burn) inhabited by a spring Atlantic salmon population dominated by multi-sea-winter fish. Research began in the 1960s providing a census of returning adults, juvenile emigrants and in-stream production of Atlantic salmon. Early research pioneered new monitoring techniques providing new insights into salmon ecology and population dynamics. These studies underlined the need for interdisciplinary approaches for understanding salmon interactions with physical, chemical and biological components of in-stream habitats at different life-stages. This highlighted variations in catchment-scale hydroclimate, hydrology, geomorphology and hydrochemistry as essential to understanding freshwater habitats in the wider landscape context. Evolution of research has resulted in a remarkable catalogue of novel findings underlining the value of long-term data that increases with time as modelling tools advance to leverage more insights from “big data”. Data are available on fish numbers, sizes and ages across multiple life stages, extending over many decades and covering a wide range of stock levels. Combined with an unusually detailed characterisation of the environment, these data have enabled a unique process-based understanding of the controls and bottlenecks on salmon population dynamics across the entire lifecycle and the consequences of declining marine survival and ova deposition. Such powerful datasets, methodological enhancements and the resulting process understanding have informed and supported the development of fish population assessment tools which have been applied to aid management of threatened salmon stocks at large-catchment, regional and national scales. Many pioneering monitoring and modelling approaches developed have been applied internationally. This history shows the importance of integrating curiosity-driven science with monitoring for informing policy development and assessing efficacy of management options. It also demonstrates the need of continue to resource long-term sites which act as a focus for inter-disciplinary research and innovation, and where the overall value of the research greatly exceeds the costs of individual component parts.

Spatially-explicit knowledge of the origins of water resources for ecosystems and rivers is challenging when using tracer data alone. We use simulations from a spatially-distributed model calibrated by extensive ecohydrological datasets in a small, energy-limited catchment, where hillslope-riparian dynamics are broadly representative of humid boreal headwater catchments that are experiencing rapid environmental transition. We hypothesize that in addition to wetness status, landscape heterogeneity modulates the water pathways that sustain ecosystem function and streamflows. Simulations show that catchment storage inversely controls streamwater ages year-round, but only during the drier seasons for transpiration and soil evaporation. The ages of these evaporative outputs depend much less on wetness status in the oft-saturated riparian soils than on the freely-draining hillslopes that subsidize them. This work highlights the need to consider local dynamics and time-changing lateral heterogeneities when interpreting the ages, and thus the vulnerability, of water resources feeding streams and ecosystems in landscapes.

We used the process-based and tracer-aided ecohydrological model EcH2O-iso to assess the effects of vegetation cover on water balance partitioning and associated flux ages under temperate beech forest (F) and grassland (G) in Northern Germany. The model was tuned on the basis of a multi-criteria calibration against an unusually rich measured data set from a long-term monitoring site.. The calibration incorporates metrics of the energy balance, hydrological function and biomass accumulation. It resulted in good efficiency statistics for simulations of surface energy exchange, soil water content, transpiration and biomass production. The model simulations showed that the forest “used” more water than the grassland; from 620mm of average annual precipitation, losses were higher through interception (29% under F, 16% for G) and combined soil evaporation and transpiration (59% F, 47% G). As a result, groundwater recharge was greatly enhanced under grassland at 37% of precipitation compared with12% for forest. The model allowed us to track the ages of water in the different storage compartments and fluxes.In the shallow soil horizons, the average ages of soil water fluxes and evaporation were similar in both plots (∼1.5month), though transpiration and groundwater recharge were older under forest (∼6 months compared with∼3months for transpiration and∼12 months compared with∼10 months for groundwater). Flux tracking with Cl tracers provided independent support for the modelling results, though also highlighted effects of uncertainties in forest partitioning of evaporation and transpiration. This underlines the potential for tracer aided ecohydrological models in land use change studies. By tracking storage – flux – age interactions under different land covers, the effects on water partitioning and age distributions can be quantified and the implications for climate change assessed.Better conceptualisation of soil water mixing processes, and improved calibration data on leaf area index and root distribution appear obvious respective modelling and data needs for improved model results.

Aaron Smith1, Doerthe Tetzlaff1,2,3, Marco Maneta4,Chris Soulsby3,21IGB Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries Berlin, Berlin, Germany2Humboldt University Berlin, Berlin, Germany3Northern Rivers Institute, School of Geosciences, University of Aberdeen, UK4Department of Geosciences, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USACorrespondence to: Aaron Smith ([email protected])

Complex networks of both natural and engineered flow paths control the hydrology of streams in major cities through spatio-temporal variations in connection and disconnection of water sources. We used spatially extensive and temporally intensive sampling of water stable isotopes to disentangle the hydrological sources of the heavily urbanized Panke catchment (≈ 220 km²) in the north of Berlin, Germany. The isotopic data enabled us to partition stream water sources across the catchment using a Bayesian mixing analysis. The upper part of the catchment streamflow here is dominated by groundwater from gravel aquifers underlying surrounding agricultural land. In dry summer periods, streamflow becomes intermittent; possibly as a result of local groundwater abstractions. Urban storm drainage is also an important part of runoff generation, dominating the responses to precipitation events. Although this dramatically changes the isotopic composition of the stream, it only accounts for 10-15% of annual streamflow. Moving downstream, subtle changes in sources and isotope signatures occur as catchment characteristic vary and the stream is affected by different tributary inflows. However, effluent from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) serving 700,000 people dominates the stream in the lower catchment where urbanisation effects are more dramatic. The associated increase in sealed surfaces downstream also reduces the relative contribution of groundwater to streamflow. The volume and isotopic composition of storm runoff is again dominated by urban drainage. As a result, only about 10% of annual runoff in the lower catchment comes from urban storm drains. The study shows the potential of stable water isotopes as inexpensive tracers in urban catchments that can provide a more integrated understanding of the complex hydrology of major cities. This offers an important evidence base for guiding the plans to develop and re-develop urban catchments to protect, restore and enhance the ecological and amenity value of these important resources.