Child Witness: Autobiography, Trauma, Social Justice Introduction Child Witness explores the emergence of the child as a testimonial site and figure in autobiographical projects by adults who seek to represent trauma and call for justice. From Harriet Jacobs’s slave narrative Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl to contemporary comics like Phoebe Gloeckner’s A Child’s Life to picture book memoirs like Ruby Bridges’ Through My Eyes, authors often incorporate childhood experience as a critical feature of shaping a life story for diverse audience. These are not stories that merely recollect childhood or burnish it nostalgically. Instead, autobiographical narratives of childhood by adults mark a site where the values associated with self-representation in politics, aesthetics, and everyday life -- truth telling, the authority of experience, reliability – attach to the child and permit adult readers to connect with the authors’ larger social justice projects. The child witness -- credible, trustworthy, and vulnerable – offers authors and audience a means of connection they would not otherwise achieve. The child in the life writing projects of Jacobs, Gloeckner, and Bridges is employed as a witness to the horrors of slavery, deprivation, rape, and segregation. The child is positioned to testify to experience rather than to suffer it. The adult author recounts what the child experienced: not by ascribing naïve authenticity to the child’s voice, but by centering the childhood experience and knowledge upon which the authority of the adult autobiographer builds. Our focus on the emergence of the child witness as a testimonial figure and site reveals how authors leverage the affective power of their own childhoods to connect with diverse audiences. Autobiographical literature that uses the child witness in this way offers a pedagogical form that educates about injustice and calls for ethical witnessing and social change. It provides for new relations to emerge between authors and audiences through which previously silenced histories of personal and collective trauma are represented. Child Witness will reveal a history of the child’s centrality to struggles for social justice, especially anti-racist, feminist, and human rights movements, and the significance within this history of autobiographical literature that connects childhood to adult activism. The book is guided by an overarching question: How does this literature disrupt the symbolic and political meanings of the child in the service of social justice and activism? Given the cultural judgments that attach to women’s autobiographical accounts, for example, how does the figure of the child and the narrative of childhood address the limits of persuasiveness and authority that damage women’s testimony? To answer these questions we chart a feminist history of life writing that foregrounds a child witness on whose behalf readers learn to demand justice. The major theoretical intervention of the book lies in our fusion of insights from childhood studies and studies of autobiographical literature through which we reveal the centrality of the child (as witness and activist, as testimonial site and figure) in a testimonial tradition of auto/biographical work that seeks to make visible and/or remedy inequity. Child Witness takes up the child – a familiar figure in literary studies and humanitarianism alike – in order to place it in a new critical context by pulling visual and verbal forms into new proximities through feminist interdisciplinary analysis. We propose that a new formation around “the child” emerges at the intersections of life writing, children’s literature, and visual culture. Specifically, our focus on the child within the history of feminist life writing reveals new examples of how to bear witness to individual and social trauma. Many will associate the words “witness” and “trauma” with Shoshana Felman and Dori Laub’s psychoanalytic and literary analyses rooted in Freud and focused on the Holocaust. Our project is rooted in a different strand of trauma studies that is based in the feminist theory and clinical practice of Judith Herman, Laura S. Brown, and others who elaborate an antiracist feminist criticism of trauma that looks at systems of inequality. Extending this work to the study of self-representation, Child Witness draws on Leigh Gilmore’s (2001, 2107) elaboration of a feminist intersectional analysis of the chronic, pervasive, and everyday quality of trauma in the lives of those who experience a range of material forms of insecurity and risk. Gilmore’s focus on testimony, everyday violence, and systemic sexism and racism is shared by other scholars who use the terms trauma and testimony without primarily referencing the work of Felman and Laub, including Judith Butler, Hillary Chute, Wendy Kozol, Nicholas Mirzoeff, and Gillian Whitlock. We define trauma here as harm that unfolds over time, is hidden in plain sight, and permitted by social norms of violence against women, children, and people of color. Child Witness engages directly with how trauma structures testimony, and it does so by attending to a range of dynamic and sometimes controversial visual-verbal strategies. Our analysis of visual culture also moves us away from Felman and Laub, as we attend to how photographic portraits in the 19th century documented slavery and visualized the subject of abolition, how comics and graphic memoirs challenge the all-too-pervasive sexual abuse of girls and women, and how auto/biographical picture books about civil rights define children as political agents. The critical term “witness” is drawn from scholarship in life writing on “human rights and narrated lives” (Smith and Schaeffer), from the analysis of race, gender, and culture in intersectional feminism, and from visual and verbal studies of ethical witnessing (Kozol; Hesford; Mirzoeff; Neary, et al). We add to previous theorizations of ethical witnessing an analysis of the child as the site and figure of testimony to the everyday trauma that the girl experiences and documents. The self-representational strategies of writers and illustrators motivate different publics to activism. We chart examples of ethical witnessing with the child at the center of autobiographical projects from slave narratives in the mid-19th century in the U.S. to contemporary memoirs and picture books. Our critical framework and archive are well-suited to each other: we document how authors use narratives and images of their own childhoods to reach diverse and often distant audiences, thereby placing familiar texts in a new critical narrative and incorporating unfamiliar texts to flesh out this history. There is no single child witness in the history we lay out; rather, autobiographers return to their childhoods and use the child as a site of testimony in a range of ways that we seek to name in each chapter. The origins and locations of meanings of childhood will shift within and among historical time periods, especially given our focus on women and girls of color. Our method is an emergent one that adapts to the flexible genre of autobiography and to the themes and strategies each author and artist employs in a text. Our use of the term social justice is an essential element of the theoretical framework of intersectional feminism. This interdisciplinary feminist frame fits our project’s focus on situated personal experiences as a way to create new knowledge, affiliations, and forms of justice that exceed courts or other formal venues. The autobiographies in this project place the girl in a political context. Here, the child is not an innocent being to be saved; rather, women name the intersections among race, class, gender, citizenship, and other variables to highlight and resist larger systems of oppression in which the child is embedded. Autobiographers use the child as a testimonial site to create narratives and images that critically interrogate systems of meaning and intersections hidden in plain sight. These are often shocking because we are trained to read the child as vulnerable, in need of saving, immune to adult conflicts, and somehow not raced or classed. For example, Rigoberta Menchú as a girl who is Indigenous, poor, colonized, and an activist who makes claims on behalf of numerous victims of torture and murder, tells a personal life story in order to draw attention to U.S. involvement in the conflict in Guatemala. Through her use of the girl, she testifies to violence and demands justice for the victims of harm. Through this example, we can see the ways in which social justice is at the heart of intersectional feminism’s commitments to examining structures of inequity that frame how and who is heard. The feminist history of life writing we propose begins with women of color. The critical and historical trajectory extends from Harriet Jacobs to Black Lives Matter in one conceptual breath and argues that when some men have focused on or embedded childhood within their autobiographical projects, they do so in relation to women’s writing. Thus the gendered discourse of autobiographical narratives of childhood develops in authority and innovation in demonstrable ways through the work of women. Critical studies of both childhood, including children’s literature and queer theory, and autobiographical narrative, including graphic memoirs and picture books, represent a provocative and important intersection for at least two reasons. First, adult autobiographers politicize childhood in ways that challenge “certain stylized and largely unquestioned assumptions about childhood” (Duane 8). Second, adults writing about their own childhoods bring attention to abuses often hidden from view and encourage adult readers to ally with them and advocate for change in the public sphere. Scholars in this area have theorized the child as a symbolic and contested social category rather than a biological certainty (Bruhm and Hurley; Driscoll; Duane; Dubinsky; Gittins; Higonnet; Kehily; Sánchez-Eppler; Steedman). Scholars of childhood maintain that while there are actual children who need protection from those positioned to provide it, the meanings a culture gives to childhood, and the harm or protections solidified in institutions and policy, will differ across time, culture, and location, as well as across the variables of race, class, gender, and sexuality. This multiplicity of meanings has been captured in cultural studies of childhood that note how the figure of the child often serves as a means to elicit a wide range of competing emotions, from sympathy to patriotism (Berlant; Edelman; Stockton). Children’s literature scholars, in particular (Capshaw; Kincaid; Kidd; Mickenberg), have been instrumental in drawing attention to how the imagined child reflects larger social and political ideologies, histories, and movements. To this field, we contribute an analysis of how the figure of the child witness enables readers to connect the private act of reading to the collective project of social change. The interdisciplinary field of autobiographical literature examines how people represent their lives in relation to history and do so in creative and innovative ways (Chaney; Chute; Gilmore; Smith and Watson; Whitlock). Historically, this practice has taken numerous nonfictional forms, including autobiography, memoir, slave narrative, and other testimonial discourses, and has also paralleled the development of fictional forms interested in the first person, including the bildungsroman, first person fiction, lyric poetry, and ‘zines (Gilmore; Rak and Polletti). We draw upon and amplify Leigh Gilmore’s analysis of limit cases in life writing in order to offer a critical frame for theorizing the use of the child witness within the larger historical and creative project of life narrative in different media. To this end, we recognize the diverse linguistic and visual strategies that authors and illustrators employ within a complex history of socio-political movements. Thus Child Witness connects an analysis of slave narratives of the 19th century to contemporary graphic memoirs and children’s picture books by historicizing and theorizing the emergence of the child witness as testimonial figure and site of cultural judgment. By design, we place autobiographical narrators like Harriet Jacobs and Rigoberta Menchú and comics artists like Marjane Satrapi and Phoebe Gloeckner alongside works often read in K-12 contexts, including fairy tales, and graphic life writing in picture book format, such as Duncan Tonatiuh’s Separate is Never Equal: Sylvia Mendez and Her Family’s Fight For Desegregation in order to capture the broad use of the child witness. This cross section of texts allows us to make visible the dynamic interrelations of gender, genre, race, and class in the context of testimony and its investments in social justice. We have been struck in our previous research (Gilmore, “Witnessing Persepolis”; Gilmore and Marshall; Marshall) by the wide range of textual and visual strategies writers and artists use to politicize childhood. Among these, we have observed how writers and artists pose ethical demands as an outgrowth of shared affect, offer up radical pedagogies that blur the soft borders between childhood and adulthood, and teach alternative lessons about history, trauma, and resistance through life writing. Our previous work examined how adults use texts and images of their own childhoods to make larger claims in the public sphere and allowed us to further analyze feminist interventions in the symbolic and cultural meanings of childhood through the media of life writing and graphic memoirs. Here we elaborate a framework for understanding how feminist autobiographical projects disrupt the symbolic and political meanings of the child. Chapter One, “Girlhoods, Crisis, and Autobiography,” examines three linked cases that introduce readers to how adult women use girlhood as a category to compel social activism. In each, the authors draw on and insert the child as central to the political activism for which they seek witness. From slave narratives to the Latin American testimonio I, Rigoberta Menchú, and autobiography in comics form, such as Marjane Satrapi’s Persepolis, in the global literary marketplace, women use autobiographical narratives of childhood to elicit readers’ ethical engagement with political topics and cultural critique. In this chapter, we chart a feminist history of how women of color use autobiographical narratives of their own girlhood to elicit sympathy from a mostly white and often geographically distant readership. These popular autobiographical narratives reach across national borders to call for political action, including the abolition of slavery in the U.S., humanitarian intervention in the civil war in Guatemala, and understanding of revolution in Iran. In these texts, women argue that political and moral autonomy develops from their responses to childhood experience and crisis. We begin with Harriet Jacobs’s critique of the destruction of childhood for enslaved children. Jacobs shifts the focus from race to racism and slavery by describing her own happy young life. Childhood, for Jacobs, offers a way to interrogate her white readers’ assumptions about race and racism. Rigoberta Menchú uses her childhood to establish a complex network of testimony, truth-telling, and privacy. She contrasts the independence and respect children are accorded and the work they are relied upon to do in Quiché culture with the exploitation of their labor on coastal plantations. Marjane Satrapi offers her child-self as a witness to the rise of the Ayatollah in Iran even as the childhood she knows disappears when her parents send her into exile. The symbolic and political meanings of the child differ in each example as do they ways in which they are unsettled; yet, taken together, they represent a history of feminist representation of the child as a testimonial figure and site. We connect these texts to make clear that how life writing, children’s literature, and visual culture are co-producing the child is broadly intersectional along the lines Kimberlé Crenshaw adumbrated. Our work can be read alongside previous theorizations of the child by scholars such as Robin Bernstein, Anna Mae Duane, Caroline Levander, Kathryn Bond Stockton and others, who also recognize the multiple systems of oppression that motivate a diverse range of equally intersectional responses by authors, artists, and activists. As with these critical projects, our method is less concerned with naming a particular child figure (e.g., the suffering child) in a particular historical moment, or communicating the authentic perspective of the child; rather, our intersectional feminist frame allows for a focus on the unique formation of an adult rendering his/her/their own childhood as a testimonial site from which to agitate for social justice. No longer representative of static subaltern silence, girls emerge in these narratives as figures of sympathy represented by politically active women autobiographers. Chapter Two, “ Soft Borders and the Feminist Politics of Girlhood,” shifts focus from the use of the child figure to draw attention to injustice and to compel the action of others on behalf of the child in order to examine the strategic use of the girlhood as a category with soft temporal borders. Here, we connect Susanna Kaysen’s popular memoir Girl, Interrupted about her confinement in McLean hospital, Lucy Grealey’s Autobiography of a Face about her experience of jaw cancer in childhood through multiple surgeries and hospitalizations, and David Small’s graphic memoir Stitches about his childhood experience of throat cancer, surgery, and its consequences. In each example, experiences of illness take the authors out of one form of time, in suspending one childhood temporality and supplanting it with another that moves in the tempo of diagnosis and treatment. One form of childhood time –growing in relation to siblings and peers, for example, schooling, neighborhood life—is replaced with the rhythms and routines of the hospital, routines that offer new markers for charting life. Childhood in these texts is a borderline category. Kaysen fuses childhood and young adulthood to make a feminist critique about the white middle class family and about mental illness. In Autobiography of a Face, Grealey offers different trajectories of growth for her body and her face, deftly revealing how the medicalization of her childhood lacked a developmental language adaptable to her sexuality. Viewed as a childhood patient, yet living in a maturing body, Grealey’s face emblematizes a complex site of traumatic experience and testimony. Whereas Susanna Kaysen represents her young adulthood as being interrupted by her institutionalization for borderline personality disorder, Grealey’s life is interrupted by a narrative of her difference, a condition she can neither leave nor outgrow but must address through narrative. We read David Smalls’ graphic memoir in relation to Kaysen and Grealey to place him within the gendered market of contemporary life writing about trauma and to highlight the feminist strategies he adapts to narrate childhood trauma. Chapter Three, “Fairy Tale Girlhoods: Sexual Violence and Feminist Graphic Knowledge,” considers the category of girlhood as a site for feminist critique through a reading of Virginia Phoebe Gloeckner’s A Child’s Life and Other Stories. Here we identify specific formal strategies Gloeckner crafts in the service of testimony, including the telescoping of child and adult perspectives and temporalities, and the use of children’s literature, especially fairy tales in Gloeckner’s graphic autobiographical project. The connection between nonfictional narratives of endangered children and the canon of children’s literature may seem tenuous, but adult life writers often rely upon familiar texts from childhood (Marshall). Fairy tale characters like Little Red Riding Hood and All-Fur experience evil stepmothers, threats of rape and rape, and other forms of violence, and provide a familiar touch point for life writing about childhood and trauma. Gloeckner returns to the sexual violence of traditional fairy tales to rupture the façade of the unknowing child. In comics like “Magda Meets the Little Men in the Woods” Gloeckner remediates the fairy tale in contemporary comics form to offer a pedagogy in which the child witness refuses the position of resilient being who grows out of or forgets trauma. This chapter offers a method for reading the visual and verbal strategies of feminist resistance that Gloeckner employs through the child witness. Specifically we note how Gloeckner creates a feminist graphic knowledge of sexual violence through her use of the gutter (the white space between panels in comics) and scale. She uses the figure of the child to intervene in the epistemology of children’s sexual precarity within families by illustrating it explicitly. She reaches out to readers visually to counter the claim that such violence is invisible and unknown. To contextualize Gloeckner’s graphic strategy, we consider Virginia Woolf’s imposed reticence about being her experience of sexual abuse as a child in her autobiographical essay, “Sketch of the Past,” and demonstrate how Una’s graphic memoir about abuse, Becoming Unbecoming present sexual abuse as defining childhood and adulthood for women rather than as an isolated or episodic interruption. In the previous chapters, we examine texts published for an adult or young adult audience and the figure of the child as witness. The final chapter, “Witnessing Social Violence for Children: Picture Books, Auto/Biography and Social Change,” takes up children’s nonfictional picture books as a unique and radical form of graphic life writing in which indigenous writers and authors and illustrators of color center a child figure who is both witness and activist. These texts represent social histories often left out of official social studies curricula. Often dismissed as simple or solely for a young audience, picture books have a history of providing “necessary cover” (Capshaw 103) for the child witness to speak and relay lessons about discrimination, violence, and activism. For instance, Duncan Tonatiuh’s biography of Sylvia Mendez and her family in Separate Is Never Equal, Ruby Bridges’ memoir Through My Eyes, and Christy Jordan-Fenton and Margaret Pokiak-Fenton’s co-authored auto/biography When I Was Eight recuperate and reclaim histories through counter-storytelling in image and narrative (Solórzano and Yosso). The child witness-as-activist is central to counter histories of racialized misrepresentation in text and image and to the creation of culturally specific stories of resistance that have radical potential for social justice education. In each of these auto/biographical picture books, a child witness who is also an activist child. In the conclusion, “New Child Witnesses,” we turn our attention to current events and movements in which the child witness is crucial to forwarding human rights. Nobel Peace Prize winner Malala Yousafzai’s representation of her childhood experience and activism in I am Malala: The Girl Who Stood up For the Taliban and Was Shot (Youfsazi and Lamb) emerges alongside the representation of her by others, including picture books, such as Malala Yousafzai: Warrior With Words (Abouraya and Wheatley) and Malala, A Brave Girl From Pakistan (Winter) and enables a comparison of the autobiographical and biographical child witness. In addition, we examine how the feminist and anti-racist movements of #BlackLivesMatter and #SayHerName protest not only the expendability of black boys and girls, but also how these subjects are denied their status as children. Tied to representational strategies in Harriet Jacobs’s Incidents, the black child remains a critical figure for social justice and a contested site of interpretation. Police officers typically see black children and adolescents as older than they are and link imputed age to the risk they pose to officers. Under these conditions, children of color and indigenous youth are at heightened risk of police violence. Social justice activism aimed at reclaiming Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown, and Tamir Rice as children politicizes the category of the child and clarifies its potent use in calls for justice. These new child witnesses circulate in a range of visual verbal circuits, draw on the strategies we outline, and also highlight emergent uses of social justice life writing that compel readers and viewers toward activism. They connect to the earlier histories of abolition and demonstrate the significance of children lives in testimonial projects. Works Cited Berlant, Lauren. 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