Projections for future air mobility envisage intensely utilised airspace that does not simply scale up from existing systems with centralised air traffic control. This paper considers the implementation and test of a software and hardware framework for decentralised control of aerial vehicles within intensely used airspace. Up to 10 rotary wing vehicles of maximum all up mass of 1 kg are flown in an outdoor volume with length scale of 100 m with GPS and WiFi connectivity. Flight control is implemented using a Pixhawk 4 flight controller running the PX4 firmware with guidance algorithms run on a separate onboard companion computer. Deconfliction is implemented using a simple elastic repulsion model with a guidance update rate of 10 Hz. Traffic structures are constructed from a path of directed waypoints and associated cross sectional geometry. Junctions are implemented when two paths converge into one or when one path diverges into two. Agents engage with structures through execution of flow, merge and swirl velocity rules. Calibration experiments showed that the worst case latency in agents sharing position information was of the order of 0 .5 s made up from delays due to finite guidance update rate, WiFi processing and centralised message processing. A choice of vehicle cruise speed of 2 m/s and conflict radius of 2 .5 m provided an acceptable compromise between experiment time efficiency (speed) and spatial efficiency (resolution) within the test volume. Results from recirculating junction experiments show that peak deconfliction activity occurs at the junction node, however biased distribution of agents within a corridor means the peak intensity is pushed ahead of the node. Use of meshed helical junction structures significantly reduces the intensity of conflict at the expense of reduced junction time efficiency.

Earthquakes, fire, and floods often cause structural collapses of buildings. The inspection of damaged buildings poses a high risk for emergency forces or is even impossible, though. We present three recent selected missions of the Robotics Task Force of the German Rescue Robotics Center, where both ground and aerial robots were used to explore destroyed buildings. We describe and reflect the missions as well as the lessons learned that have resulted from them. In order to make robots from research laboratories fit for real operations, realistic test environments were set up for outdoor and indoor use and tested in regular exercises by researchers and emergency forces. Based on this experience, the robots and their control software were significantly improved. Furthermore, top teams of researchers and first responders were formed, each with realistic assessments of the operational and practical suitability of robotic systems.

Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) technology is ubiquitously employed in ground robots, unmanned aerial vehicles, and autonomous cars. This paper presents LTA-OM: an efficient, robust, and accurate LiDAR SLAM system. Employing FAST-LIO2 and Stable Triangle Descriptor as LiDAR-IMU odometry and the loop detection method, respectively, LTA-OM is implemented to be functionally complete, including loop detection and correction, false positive loop closure rejection, long-term association mapping, and multi-session localization and mapping. One novelty of this paper is the real-time long-term association (LTA) mapping, which exploits the direct scan-to-map registration of FAST-LIO2 and employs the corrected history map to constrain the mapping process globally. LTA leads to more globally consistent map construction and drift-less odometry at revisit places. We exhaustively benchmark LTA-OM and other state-of-the-art LiDAR systems with 18 data sequences. The results show that LTA-OM steadily outperforms other systems regarding trajectory accuracy, map consistency, and time consumption. The robustness of LTA-OM is validated in a challenging scene - a multi-level building having similar structures at different levels. Besides, a multi-session mode is designed to allow the user to store current session’s results, including the corrected map points, optimized odometry, and descriptor database for future sessions. The benefits of this mode are additional accuracy improvement and consistent map stitching, which is helpful for life-long mapping. Furthermore, LTA-OM has valuable features for robot control and path planning, including high-frequency and real-time odometry, drift-less odometry at revisit places, and fast loop closing convergence. Moreover, LTA-OM is versatile as it is applicable to both multi-line spinning and solid-state LiDARs, mobile robots and handheld platforms.

The soil contact model (SCM) is widely used in practice for off-road wheeled vehicle mobility studies when simulation speed is important and highly accurate results are not a main concern. In practice, the SCM parameters are obtained via a bevameter test, which requires a complex apparatus and experimental procedure. Here, we advance the idea of running a virtual bevameter test using a high-fidelity terramechanics simulation. The latter employs the “continuous representation model” (CRM), which regards the deformable terrain as an elasto-plastic continuum that is spatially discretized using the smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method. The approach embraced is as follows: a virtual bevameter test is run in simulation using CRM terrain to generate “ground truth” data; in a Bayesian framework, this data is subsequently used to calibrate the SCM terrain. We show that (i) the resulting SCM terrain, while leading to fast terramechanics simulations, serves as a good proxy for the more complex CRM terrain; and (ii) the SCM-over-CRM simulation speedup is roughly one order of magnitude. These conclusions are reached in conjunction with two tests: a single wheel test, and a full rover simulation. The SCM and CRM simulations are run in an open-source software called Chrono. The calibration is performed using PyMC, which is a Python package that interactively communicates with Chrono to calibrate SCM. The models and scripts used in this contribution are available as open source for unfettered use and distribution in a public repository.

When there are obstacles around the target point, the mobile robot cannot reach the target using traditional Artificial Potential Field (APF). Besides, the traditional APF is prone to local oscillation in complex terrain such as three-point collinear or semi-closed obstacles. Aiming at solving the defects of traditional APF, a novel improved APF algorithm named back virtual obstacle setting strategy-APF (BVO-APF) has been proposed in this paper. There are two main advantages of the proposed method. Firstly, by redefining the gravitational function as logarithmic function, the proposed method can make the mobile robot reach the target point when there are obstacles around the target. Secondly, the proposed method can avoid falling into local oscillation for both three-point collinear and semi-closed obstacles. Compare with APF and other improved APF, the feasibility of the algorithm is proved through software simulation and practical application.

In the agricultural industry, an evolutionary effort has been made over the last two decades to achieve precise autonomous systems to perform typical in-field tasks including harvesting, mowing, and spraying. One of the main objectives of an autonomous system in agriculture is to improve the efficiency while reducing the environmental impact and cost. Due to the nature of these operations, complete coverage path planning approaches play an essential role to find an optimal path which covers the entire field while taking into account land topography, operation requirements and robot characteristics. The aim of this paper is to propose a complete coverage path planning approach defining the optimal movements of mobile robots over an agricultural field. First, a method based on tree exploration is proposed to find all potential solutions satisfying some predefined constraints. Second, a Similarity check and selection of optimal solutions method is proposed to eliminate similar solutions and find the best solutions. The optimization goals are to maximize the coverage area and to minimize overlaps, non-working path length and overall travel time. In order to explore a wide range of possible solutions, our approach is able to consider multiple entrances for the robot. For fields with a complex shape, different dividing lines to split it into simple polygons are also considered. Our approach also computes the headland zones and covers them automatically which leads to a high coverage rate of the field.

Long-term operation of autonomous robots creates new challenges to the Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM). Varying conditions of the vehicle’s surroundings, such as appearance variations (lighting, daytime, weather, or seasonal) or reconfigurations of the environment, are a challenge for SLAM algorithms to adapt to new changes while preserving old states. When also operating for long periods and trajectory lengths, the map should readjust to environment changes but not grow indefinitely, where the map size should be dependent only on the explored environment area. Long-term SLAM intends to overcome the challenges associated with lifelong autonomy and improve the robustness of autonomous systems. Although several studies review SLAM algorithms, none of them focus on lifelong autonomy. Thus, this paper presents a systematic literature review on long-term localization and mapping following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. The review analyzes 142 works covering appearance invariance, modeling the environment dynamics, map size management, multi-session, and computational issues including parallel computing and timming efficiency. The analysis also focus on the experimental data and evaluation metrics commonly used to assess long-term autonomy. Moreover, an overview over the bibliographic data of the 142 records provides analysis in terms of keywords and authorship co-occurrence to identify the terms more used in long-term SLAM and research networks between authors, respectively. Future studies can update this paper thanks to the systematic methodology presented in the review and the public GitHub repository with all the documentation and scripts used during the review process.

Hydrobatic Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) can be efficient in range and speed, as well as agile in maneuvering. They can be beneficial in scenarios such as obstacle-avoidance, inspections, docking, and under-ice operations. However, such AUVs are underactuated systems - this means exploiting the system dynamics is key to achieving elegant hydrobatic maneuvers with minimum controls. This paper explores the use of Model Predictive Control (MPC) techniques to control underactuated AUVs in hydrobatic maneuvers and presents new simulation and experimental results with the small and hydrobatic SAM AUV. Simulations are performed using nonlinear MPC (NMPC) on the full AUV system to provide optimal control policies for several hydrobatic maneuvers in Matlab/Simulink. For implementation on AUV hardware in ROS, a linear time varying MPC (LTV-MPC) is derived from the nonlinear model to enable real-time control. In simulations, NMPC and LTV-MPC shows promising results to offer much more efficient control strategies than what can be obtained with PID and LQR based controllers in terms of rise-time, overshoot, steady-state error and robustness. The LTV-MPC shows satisfactory real-time performance in experimental validation. The paper further also demonstrates experimentally that LTV-MPC can be run real-time on the AUV in performing hydrobatic maneouvers.