Problems \cite{Duncker1945}; complex problems \cite{Sternberg1991}; problem solving \cite{Newell1972}; problem solving and neurobiology \cite{Anderson2012}; defining problem solving; heuristics \cite{Polya1945,Martinez1998}; problem solving in education in general (Dewey); problem solving in physics education \cite{Reif1976,Larkin1979}; what is unique about physics problem solving.
Novice and expert studies \cite{Larkin1979,Larkin1980,Dhillon1998,Snyder2000}; novice and expert studies in other fields – mathematics, computer science, astronomy, engineering, chemistry, biology, medicine, scientific writing, language learning, education, political science, economics, music, theater, physical education; limitations of novice and expert studies; instructors’ ideas about problem solving \cite{Henderson2001,Kuo2004}.
Knowledge structures \cite{Reif1995,NRC2000,Snyder2000,Sabella2007}; knowledge structures and preconceptions \cite{Arons1997,Mazur1997}; metacognition and awareness of knowledge structures; neuroscientific correspondence; local and global coherence \cite{Sabella2007}; multiple local coherences \cite{Frank2012}.
Problem solving and self-explanations \cite{Chi1991}.
Surface features and deep structure \cite{Chi2012,Docktor2012}.
Strategy \cite{Reif1982,Mestre1993,Bolton1997,Huffman1997}
Cooperative Problem Solving Curriculum \cite{Heller1992a,Heller1992}.
Physics problem solving was first investigated by comparing the problem-solving strategies of novices (students in introductory physics classes) and experts (physics professors).
Metacognition \cite{Flavell1976,Fox2008,Lai2011}; defining metacognition \cite{Jacobs1987,Nelson1990,Veenman2006}; metacognition, self-regulation, executive function \cite{McCormick2013}; assessing metacognition \cite{McCormick2013}; metacognition and neurobiology \cite{Anderson2011}; importance of teaching metacognition \cite{NRC2000}.
Analyses of the knowledge and skills underlying the notion of metacognition originated in the work of James, Piaget, and Vygotsky \cite{Fox2008}. The term metacognition was first introduced by Flavell as “knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes and products or anything related to them” \cite{Flavell1976} or “cognition about cognition” \cite{Flavell1985}. Despite these seemingly straightforward definitions, the literature abounds with different working definitions of the term. In general, however, the literature points to two facets of metacognition: knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition \cite{Schraw1998,Veenman2006}.
Metacognition in physics education \cite{Amigues1988,Mestre2001,Kung2007,Taasoobshirazi2013}; metacognition in reading physics texts \cite{Koch2001}.
Constructivism; social learning.
History and philosophy of science; understanding basics of cognitive science \cite{McCabe2011}; extrinsic motivation (grades and assessment).