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--- a/Makefile
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...
${LATEX} thesis.tex
${BIBTEX} thesis
${LATEX} thesis.tex
cp thesis.pdf thesis_`date +%Y-%m-%d_%H:%M:%S`.pdf
mwe:
${LATEX} mwe.tex
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\input{preface}
%\standalonefalse
\chapter{\formaldehyde observations of BGPS sources not previously observed with Arecibo}
\label{ch:h2colarge}
...
\subimport{/Users/adam/work/h2co/maps/paper/}{h2co_maps}
\subimport{/Users/adam/work/h2co/lowdens/paper/}{h2co_lowdens}
\input{solobib} %\input{solobib}
\end{document}
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diff --git a/h2co_lowdens.tex b/h2co_lowdens.tex
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index 3d5ecd8..8228b59
--- a/h2co_lowdens.tex
+++ b/h2co_lowdens.tex
...
\input{preface}
\section{Introduction}
Turbulence Nearly all gas in the interstellar medium is
important. supersonically turbulent. The
properties of this turblence are essential for determining how star formation
progresses.
There are now predictive theories of star formation that include formulations
of the Initial Mass Function
\citep{Hopkins2012b,Chabrier2010a,Hennebelle2011a,Hennebelle2013a,Padoan2012a,Padoan2011b,Padoan2007a,Krumholz2005a}.
The distribution of stellar masses depends critically on the properties of the
turbulence. It is therefore essential to measure the properties of turbulence in the
molecular clouds that produce these stars.
Recent works have used simulations to characterize the density distribution
from different driving modes of turbulence
\citep{Federrath2013a,Federrath2011a,Federrath2010a,Federrath2009a,Federrath2008a,Kritsuk2011a}.
These works determined that there is a relation between the mode of turbulent driving and the width
of the turbulent distribution, with $\sigma_{\ln \rho} = \ln\left(1+b^2 \mathcal{M}^2 \frac{\beta}{\beta+1}\right)$,
where $\beta=2 (\mathcal{M}_A / \mathcal{M})^2 = 2 (c_s/v_A)^2$.
This equation can also be expressed in terms of the compressive mach number
$\mathcal{M}_c = b \mathcal{M}$, with $b\approx 1/3$ corresponding to
solenoidal forcing and $b = 1$ corresponding to purely compressive forcing
\citep{Federrath2010a,Konstandin2012a,Molina2012a}.
%However, \citet{Hopkins2013a} notes
%that the lognormal approximation of the turbulent density distribution
All of the turbulence-based theories of star formation explicitly assume a
lognormal form for the density probability distribution $P_V{\ln \rho}$ of the
gas. However, recent simulations \citep{Federrath2013a} and theoretical work
\citep{Hopkins2013a} have shown that the assumption of a lognormal distribution
is often very poor\footnote{The simultaneous assumption of a lognormal
mass-weighted and volume-weighted density distribution is also not
self-consistent \citep{Hopkins2013a}. }, deviating by orders of magnitude at
the extreme of the density distributions. Since these theories all involve an
integral over the density probability distribution funcion (PDF), skew in the
lognormal distribution can drastically affect the overall star formation rate
and predicted initial mass function.
While simulations are powerful probes of wide ranges of parameter space, no
simulation is capable of including all of the physical processes and spatial
scales relevant to turbulence. Observations are required to provide additional
constraints on properties of interstellar turbulence and guide simulators
towards the most useful conditions and processes to include.
\citet{Kainulainen2013a} and \citet{Kainulainen2012a} provide some of the first
observational constraints on the mode of turbulent driving, finding
$b\approx0.4$, i.e. that there is a mix of solenoidal and compressive modes.
% However, these observations still attempted to characterize a lognormal
% distribution.
Formaldehyde, \formaldehyde, is a unique probe of density in molecular clouds.
Like CO, it is ubiquitous, with a nearly constant abundance wherever CO is
found \citep{Tang2013a,Mangum1993a}. The lowest rotational transitions of
\ortho at 2 and 6 cm can be observed in absorption against the cosmic microwave
background or any bright continuum source \citep{Ginsburg2011a,Darling2012b}.
The ratio of these lines is strongly sensitive to the local density of \hh, but
it is relatively insensitive to the local gas temperature
\citep{Wiesenfeld2013a,Troscompt2009a}. Unlike critical density tracers, the
\formaldehyde line ratio has a direct dependence on the density that is
independent of the column density.
However, the particular property of the \formaldehyde densitometer we explore
here is its ability to trace the \emph{mass-weighted} density of the gas.
Typical density measurements from \thirteenco or dust measure the total mass
and assume a line-of-sight geometry, measuring a \emph{volume-weighted}
density, i.e. $\rho_V = M_{tot}/V_{tot}$. In contrast, the \formaldehyde
densitometer is sensitive to the density that corresponds to the most mass,
i.e. $\rho_M = \int M \rho d M / M_{tot}$. The volume- and mass- weighted
densities will vary with different drivers of turbulence, so in clouds
dominated by turbulence, if we have measurements of both, we can infer the
driver.
Federrath, Kainulainen, Kritsuk, etc.
\section{Non-star-forming, low column-density clouds in absorption}
In \citet{Ginsburg2011a}, we noted that the \formaldehyde densitometer revealed
volume densities much higher than expected given the cloud-average densities
from \thirteenco observations. The densities were higher even than typical
...
statistical argument; here we attempt to demonstrate that the clumps in GMCs
are of very high density in individual clouds.
In order to detect low-column-density clouds, we must use bright background
illumination sources at 2 and 6 cm, i.e. HII regions. There are a few dozen of
these within the inner Galactic plane, including the sources observed in
\citet{Ginsburg2011a} and the majority of the bright sources in the BGPS
\citep{Ginsburg2013}.
As an example case-study, \section{Observations}
We report \formaldehyde observations performed at the Arecibo Radio
Observatory\footnote{The Arecibo Observatory is part of the National Astronomy
and Ionosphere Center, which is operated by Cornell University under a
cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. } and the Green
Bank Telescope\footnote{ The National Radio Astronomy Observatory operates the
GBT and VLA and is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under
cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. } that will be
described in more detail in \citep{Ginsburg2011a}, with additional data to be
published in a future work. Arecibo and the GBT have FWHM$\approx50$\arcsec
beams at the observed frequencies of 4.829 and 14.488 GHz, respectively.
Observations were carried out in a position-switched mode with 3 and 5.5\arcmin
offsets for the Arecibo and GBT observations respectively.
The Boston University / Five-College Radio Astronomy Observatory Galactic Ring
Survey \thirteenco data was also used. The BU FCRAO GRS \citep{Jackson2006a}
is a survey of the Galactic plane in the \thirteenco\ 1-0 line with $\sim
46\arcsec$ resolution. We used reduced data cubes of the $\ell=43$ region.
\subsection{A non-star-forming molecular cloud}
% In order to detect low-column-density clouds, we
must use bright background
% illumination sources at 2 and 6 cm, i.e. HII regions. There are a few dozen of
% these within the inner Galactic plane, including the sources observed in
% \citet{Ginsburg2011a} and the majority of the bright sources in the BGPS
% \citep{Ginsburg2013b}.
We examine
the line of sight towards G43.17+0.01, also known as W49. In
the a
large survey, we observed two lines of sight towards W49, the second at
G43.16-0.03. Both are very bright continuum sources, and two GMCs are easily
detected in
both \formaldehyde absorption and \thirteenco emission. Figure
\ref{fig:w49fullspec} shows the spectrum dominated by W49 itself, but with
clear foreground absorption components. The continuum level subtracted from the spectra
are 73 K at 6 cm and 11 K at 2 cm for the south component, and 194 K at 6 cm
...
% 2001ApJ...551..747S
\FigureTwo{figures/G43.17+0.01_H2CO_overplot_gbt9x.png}
{figures/G43.16-0.03_H2CO_overplot_gbt9x.png}
{Spectra of the \formaldehyde \oneone (black), \twotwo (red), and \thirteenco
1-0 (green) lines towards G43.17+0.01 (left) and G43.16-0.03 (right).
The \formaldehyde spectra are shown continuum-subtracted, and the \thirteenco
spectrum is offset by 1 K for clarity. The GBT \twotwo spectra are multiplied
by a factor of 9 so the smaller lines can be seen.
}{fig:w49fullspec}{1}
We focus on the ``foreground''
lines line at $\sim40$
\kms and $\sim65$ \kms, since
they are it is not
associated with the extremely massive W49 region.
It is difficult The cloud, known as GRSMC
43.30-0.33 \citep{Simon2001a}, was confirmed to
assess the level of have no associated star
formation
within these clouds, since they lie
directly along the line of sight to W49, but additional in that work. Additional \formaldehyde spectra of
the surrounding
sources that are bright at 8-1100 \um
and within the \thirteenco contours of
the cloud show that they are all at the velocity of W49 and therefore are not
associated with these foreground clouds.
Additionally, the 40 \kms cloud, known as GRSMC 43.30-0.33
\citep{Simon2001a}, was confirmed in that paper to have no associated star
formation.
The
40 \kms cloud, \formaldehyde lines are is observed in
its outskirts, the outskirts of the cloud, not at
the peak of the \thirteenco emission. The cloud
structure is vast, spanning spans $\sim0.6\degrees$, or
$\sim60$ $\sim30$ pc at $D=2.8$ kpc \citep{Roman-Duval2009a}. It is detected in \oneone
absorption at all 6 locations observed in \formaldehyde (Figure
\ref{fig:40kmscloud}), but \twotwo is only detected in front of the W49 HII
region because of the higher signal-to-noise at that location. The detected
\thirteenco and \formaldehyde lines are fairly narrow, with \formaldehyde FWHM
$\sim1.3$-$2.8$ \kms and \thirteenco widths from 1.8-5.9 \kms. The \thirteenco
lines are 50\% wider than the \formaldehyde lines.
The highest \thirteenco contours are observed as a modest
IRDC, infrared dark cloud
in Spitzer 8 \um images, but no dust emission peaks are observed at 500 \um or
1.1
mm. mm associated with the dark gas. This is an indication that any star
formation, if present, is weak - no
clusters massive dense clumps are
presently forming
from present within
this cloud.
%
% Full GRSMC GLON deg GLAT deg VLSR km/s DelV km/s Rad pc Mass Msun e_ Msun nH2 cm-3 Tex K tau Sigma Msun/pc2 alpha Note RD09 _RA.icrs deg _DE.icrs deg
% 1 G043.14-00.36 043.14 -00.36 41.17 3.13 3.9 6.8e+03 2.2e+03 431.4 5.66 1.92 144.8 0.91 i RD09 287.88 +08.91
% 2 G043.04-00.11 043.04 -00.11 41.59 3.48 4.2 8.3e+03 3.2e+03 394.6 5.68 1.77 145.7 1.02 i RD09 287.61 +08.94
% 3 G043.14-00.76 043.14 -00.76 59.02 2.92 9.8 3.0e+04 1.0e+04 117.6 5.78 1.28 100.4 0.45 i RD09 288.24 +08.72
% 4 G043.49-00.71 043.49 -00.71 41.59 1.84 1.9 1.3e+03 4.6e+02 645.7 5.23 1.85 108.8 0.84 i RD09 288.35 +09.06
%
% 6.8+8.3 = 15.1 x10^3 msun
% circle is closer to 0.3 degrees, radius=14.66 pc (0.3 * 3600 * 2800 / 206265.)
% In [105]: 1.5e4 * 2e33 / (2.8*1.67e-24) / (4/3.*pi*(15*3.08e18)**3)
% Out[105]: 15.532172896708314
%
% In [106]: 1.5e4 * 2e33 / (2.8*1.67e-24) / ((2*15*3.08e18)**3)
% Out[106]: 8.132626711097554
%
% In [107]: 1.5e4 * 2e33 / (2.8*1.67e-24) / (4/3.*pi*(15*3.08e18)**3*(1*1*0.1))
% Out[107]: 155.32172896708315
%
The cloud has mass $M_{CO} = 1.5\ee{4}$ \msun in a radius $r=15$ pc, so its
mean density is $n(\hh) \approx 15$ \percc assuming spherical symmetry. If we
instead assume a cubic volume, the mean density is $n(\hh)\sim8$ \percc. For
an oblate spheroid, with minor axis $0.1\times$ the other axes, the mean
density is $n\sim150\percc$, which we regard as a conservative upper limit.
\citet{Simon2001a} report a mass $M_{CO} = 6\ee{4} \msun$ and $r=13$ pc,
yielding a density $n(\hh)=100$ \percc, which is consistent with our estimates
but somewhat higher than measured by \citet{Roman-Duval2010a} because of the
improved optical depth corrections in the latter work.
% It resembles, in that respect, the California molecular
% cloud. However, it is much smaller, with $M\approx8.3\ee{3}\pm3.2\ee{3} \msun$
% compared to California's $\sim10^5$.
\Figure{figures/W49_RGB_40kms_aplpy.png}
{The G43 40 \kms cloud. The background image shows Herschel SPIRE 70 \um (red),
...
optical depth infrared dark cloud associated with this GMC.}
{fig:40kmscloud}{0.5}{0}
\section{Modeling \formaldehyde}
In order to infer densities using the \formaldehyde densitometer, we use the
low-temperature collision rates given by \citet{Troscompt2009a} with RADEX
\citep{van-der-Tak2007a} to build a grid of predicted line properties covering
densities from $10-10^8$ \hh \percc, temperatures from 5-50 K, column densities
$N(\ortho)$ from $10^{11}-10^{16}$ \persc, and ortho-to-para ratios from
$10^{-3}-3$.
The \formaldehyde densitometer measurements are shown in Figure \ref{fig:h2codensg43}.
The figures show optical depth spectra, given by the equation
$$\tau \begin{equation}
\tau =
-\log\left(\frac{S_\nu -\ln\left(\frac{S_\nu + 2.73}{\bar{C_\nu} +
2.73}\right)$$ 2.73}\right)
\end{equation}
where $S_\nu$ is the spectrum (with continuum included) and $\bar{C_\nu}$ is
the measured
continuum.
\FigureTwo{figures/G43.16-0.03_40kms_h2codensfit.png}
{figures/G43.17+0.01_40kms_h2codensfit.png} continuum, both in Kelvins. The cosmic microwave background
temperature is added to the continuum since \formaldehyde can be seen in
absorption against it, though towards W49 it is negligible.
% G43.17
% [Param #0 DENSITY0 = 4.36419 +/- 0.0755311 Range: [1,8],
% Param #1 COLUMN0 = 12.4276 +/- 0.0417072 Range: [11,16],
% Param #2 ORTHOPARA0 = -1.25514 +/- 1.30736 Range:[-3,0.477121],
% Param #3 TEMPERATURE0 = 27.5313 +/- 18.9722 Range: [5,55],
% Param #4 CENTER0 = 39.5386 +/- 0.00108955 ,
% Param #5 WIDTH0 = 0.379159 +/- 0.000709161 Range: [0,inf)]
% stats_dict['DENSITY0']['CI'] = [9337.9885256493308, 23130.782791203092, 7697.2821104556024]
% G43.16
% [Param #0 DENSITY0 = 4.30989 +/- 0.108066 Range: [1,8],
% Param #1 COLUMN0 = 12.1953 +/- 0.0535173 Range: [11,16],
% Param #2 ORTHOPARA0 = -1.25075 +/- 1.31576 Range:[-3,0.477121],
% Param #3 TEMPERATURE0 = 28.037 +/- 19.9428 Range: [5,55],
% Param #4 CENTER0 = 40.3406 +/- 0.0102343 Range: [35,45],
% Param #5 WIDTH0 = 0.765835 +/- 0.0100109 Range: [0,inf)]
% stats_dict['DENSITY0']['CI'] = [10105.478740355829, 20412.420448321209, 11646.197755316312]
\FigureTwo{figures/G43.16-0.03_40kmscloud_MCMCfit_nolegend.png}
{figures/G43.17+0.01_40kmscloud_MCMCfit_nolegend.png}
{Optical depth spectra of the \oneone and \twotwo lines towards the two W49
lines of sight, G43.16 (left) and G43.17 (right).
The
fitted parameters, along with the statistical 1-$\sigma$
errors, are shown in the legend. The optical depth ratio falls in a regime where temperature has very little
effect and there is no degeneracy between low and high
densities \citep[see Figure 2 of][]{Ginsburg2011a}. For the right line,
it is also unaffected by lognormal turbulence, i.e. no matter what the width of
the density distribution, the measured density remains unchanged \citep[see
Figure 3 of][]{Ginsburg2011a}.} densities. }
{fig:h2codensg43}{1}
% fitted using ~/work/h2co/G43.17+0.01/fit_small_lines.py, specifically the MC40 million-long chains
% and G43.16-0.03/fit_small_lines.py
We performed line fits to both lines simultaneously using a Markov-chain
monte-carlo approach, assuming uniform priors across the modeled parameter
space and independent gaussian errors on each spectral bin. The density
measurements are very precise, with
$n\approx1.56\times10^4 \pm
0.14\ee{4}$ $n\approx23,000 {}^{+9300}_{-7700}$ \percc
(95\% confidence interval) and $n\approx
1.98\times10^4 \pm 0.32\ee{4}$ 20,400 {}^{+12000}_{-10000}$ \percc for
G43.17+0.01 and G43.16-0.03 respectively.
At While this is a precise measurement
of gas density, we now need to examine exactly what gas we have measured the
density of.
%At this level of precision, the
density %density measurements are dominated by
systematics - especially gas systematic uncertainties in temperature and
%the ortho-to-para ratio of \hh.
%However...
% and collision rate uncertainties - which limit the accuracy to $\sim50\%$ using
% the \citet{Green1991} rates
% \citep{Zeiger2010}.
Nonetheless, the % The measured density is much higher than the \thirteenco-measured cloud-average
% density $n\approx 400$ \percc \citep[for cloud
% GRSMC\_G043.04-00.11;][]{Roman-Duval2010a}, with
% $n_{\formaldehyde}/n_{\thirteenco} \approx 50$. The discrepancy is worse using
% the \citet{Simon2001a} cloud-averaged density $n\approx 100$ \percc.
% Our density measurements are about 4$\times$ higher than CO/CI LVG density
% measurements from \citet{Plume2004a}, though those measurements rely on
% uncertain abundances and are fairly sensitive to temperature.
Since the W49 line of sight is clearly on the outskirts of the cloud, not
through its
core, center, such a high density is unlikely to be an indication that
this line of sight corresponds to a centrally condensed density peak (e.g., a
core).
The comparable density observed through two different lines of sight
separated by $\sim 2$ pc also supports this idea.
% Using
% Figure 4 of \citet{Ginsburg2011a}, we can `turbulence-correct' the density
% measurements, but even in the most extreme case with a turbulent density
% distribution lognormal width $\sigma_s = 1.5$, the correction is only a factor
% of 2.5, reducing the discrepancy to a factor of $\sim20$.
% We should then ask, if there is gas at high density, how much is at this density?
% To address this question, we'll assume that the densities in all of the \formaldehyde
...
% total \formaldehyde column, even though it does not constrain the density
% without a corresponding \twotwo detection.
% Comparing the integrated \formaldehyde lines to the integrated \thirteenco
% lines, the integrated \formaldehyde column densities are
% $N_{\ortho} = 2.03\ee{12} $ and $1.56\ee{12}$ \persc for G43.16
% and G43.17 respectively.
% The \thirteenco integrated spectra have brightness $T_{MB} = 2.6$ K and $1.3$ K
% for G43.16 and G43.17 respectively. Using the cloud-averaged excitation
% temperature for this cloud, $\tau_{13}=2.3$ and $0.6$ respectively, so
% \citet{Roman-Duval2010a} equation 3 yields column densities $N_{13} = 6.2\ee{15}
% $ and $1.6\ee{15}$ \percc respectively. Assuming
an a \thirteenco abundance relative to
\hh \hh,
% $X_{13} = 1.8\ee{-6}$ \citep[consistent with ][]{Roman-Duval2010a}, the
% resulting \hh column densities are 3.5\ee{21} and 9.0 \ee{20} \percc
% respectively. The abundances of \ortho relative to \thirteenco are 3.2\ee{-4}
% and 9.8\ee{-4} respectively, or relative to \hh, 5.8\ee{-10} and 1.7\ee{-9},
% which are entirely consistent with other measurements of $X_{\ortho}$.
%These
%are relatively modest column densities, with $A_V=17$ and 4.5;
%these measurements are consistent with \citet{Plume2004a} if the different
%A_V/N(H_2) conversions are corrected.
% These measurements for a specific cloud validate the statistical argument made
% in \citet{Ginsburg2011a}.
% However, upon closer inspection of the cloud
% morphology, the real explanation may be simple: the filling factor of gas
% within the GMC is small on large scales, not local scales. The implied volume
% filling factor from this analysis and the \citet{Ginsburg2011a} analysis is
% $\sim10^{-2}$; the assumption of spherical symmetry is therefore extremely
% poor.
% This low filling factor has major implications for the gas: if it is in
% gravitational collapse, the free-fall times are shorter by an order of
% magnitude than usually assumed. The long lifetimes of GMCs therefore implies
% that the cloud cannot be undergoing gravitational collapse, but instead
% maintains a turbulent equilibrium. \todo{Strengthen this argument...}
%
% It also demonstrates that density-based star-formation thresholds do not
% independently predict star formation \citep{Parmentier2011a}. Star formation
% cannot simply be driven by the free-fall time of gas, since apparently much of
% the gas above $n>10^4$ \percc is not in free-fall.
% 3c111 is in california, not 3c123
% \subsection{Comparison to 3C123 and the California Nebula}
...
% functions of column density that have recently become popular
% \citep[e.g][]{Kainulainen2009}.
\section{Implications for Turbulence} \section{Turbulence and \formaldehyde}
Supersonic interstellar turbulence can be characterized by its driving mode,
Mach number $\mathcal{M}$, and magnetic field strength.
Assuming the distribution follows a lognormal distribution, defined as
\begin{equation}
\label{eqn:lognormal}
P_V(s) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2 \pi \sigma_s^2}} \exp\left[-\frac{(s+\sigma_s^2/2)^2}{2 \sigma_s^2}\right]
\end{equation}
where the subscript $V$ indicates that this is a volumetric density
distribution function.
The
with width of the turbulent density distribution
is given by
\begin{equation}
\label{eqn:sigmas}
...
\end{equation}
where $\beta= 2 c_s^2/v_A^2 = 2 \mathcal{M}_A^2/\mathcal{M}^2$ and $b$ ranges
from 1/3 (solenoidal, divergence-free forcing) to 1 (compressive, curl-free)
forcing. forcing \citep{Federrath2010a}. The parameter
$s\equiv\rho/\rho_0$. $s$ is the logarithmic
overdensity, $s\equiv\ln(\rho/\rho_0)$.
The observed \formaldehyde ratio
roughly depends on the \emph{mass-weighted}
probability distribution function (as opposed to the volume-weighted
distribution function, which is typically reported in
simulations) simulations). We first
examine the implications assuming a lognormal distribution for the
mass-weighted density.
% such that $p_m(s) = \rho \cdot p_s(s)$, or
% \begin{equation}
% \label{eqn:lognormal}
% p_m(s) = \frac{s}{\sqrt{2 \pi \sigma_s^2}}
\exp{\left(-\frac{(s-s_0)^2}{2 \exp{\left(-\frac{(\ln(\rho/\rho_0))^2}{2 \sigma_s^2}\right)}
% \end{equation}
% where we have assumed a lognormal form for $p_m(s)$.
Other %Other forms of the density PDF will be addressed in Section \ref{sec:simpdfs}.
We use LVG models of the \formaldehyde lines, which are computed assuming a
fixed local density, as a starting point to model the observations of
\formaldehyde in turbulence. Starting with a fixed
\emph{mean} density, \emph{volume-averaged}
density $\rho_0$, we compute the observed \formaldehyde optical depth in both
the \oneone and \twotwo
line by averaging over the mass-weighted density distribution.
\begin{equation}
\label{eqn:tauintegral}
\tau(\bar{n}) \tau(\rho_0) =
\int_0^\infty \tau(n) p_m(n) dn \int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{\tau_p(\rho)}{N_p} P_m(\ln \rho/\rho_0) d \ln \rho
\end{equation}
where $\tau(n)$ $\tau_p(\rho)/N_p$ is
computed for the optical depth \emph{per particle} at a given
density, where $N_p$ is the column
density
assuming (\perkmspc) from the LVG model.
We assume a fixed
\emph{abundance} abundance of \ortho relative to \hh
(i.e., the \formaldehyde perfectly traces the \hh). Figure \ref{fig:lvgsmooth}
shows the result of this integral for an abundance of \ortho relative to
\hh, which \hh
$X(\ortho)=10^{-9}$, where the x-axis shows $\rho_0 = n(\hh)$ and the Y-axis
shows the observable optical depth ratio of the two \formaldehyde centimeter
lines.
%% pp removed: we don't really need to worry about the effect on the column density
%% for the theoretically computed plot since we have constraints on the column...
%which necessarily implies a higher
column %column density of \ortho for the higher densities in Equation
\ref{eqn:tauintegral}. %\ref{eqn:tauintegral}. As long as the \formaldehyde lines are optically thin,
this %this approach should yield the right \emph{ratio} of the two lines, although the
absolute %absolute optical depths may be substantially smaller because of lower total
\ortho %\ortho columns. An example of this smoothing is shown in Figure
\ref{fig:lvgsmooth}.
\Figure{figures/lognormalsmooth_density_ratio_massweight_logopr0.0_abund-9.png} %\ref{fig:lvgsmooth}.
% /Users/adam/work/h2co/pilot/plotcodes/lognormal_density_massweighted.py
% path: /Volumes/disk5/Users/adam/work/h2co/pilot/figures/models/lognormalsmooth_density_ratio_massweight_logopr0.0_abund-9.png
% cp ~/work/h2co/pilot/figures/models/lognormalsmooth_density_ratio_massweight_withhopkins_logopr0.0_abund-9.png figures/
% cp ~/work/h2co/pilot/figures/models/lognormalsmooth_density_ratio_massweight_withhopkins_logopr0.0_abund-9_withG43.png figures/
\Figure{figures/lognormalsmooth_density_ratio_massweight_withhopkins_logopr0.0_abund-9_withG43.png}
{The predicted \formaldehyde \oneone/\twotwo ratio as a function of
\emph{mean} volume-weighted mean
density for a fixed abundance relative to \hh $X(\ortho) = 10^{-9}$ and \hh
ortho/para ratio 1.0. The legend shows the effect of smoothing with different
lognormal mass distributions as described in
Equations \ref{eqn:sigmas} Equation \ref{eqn:sigmas}. % and \ref{eqn:lognormal}.
The solid line, labeled LVG, shows the predicted ratio
with no
smoothing. smoothing (i.e., a $\delta$-function density distribution).
The blue errorbars show the G43.17 \formaldehyde measurement and the GSRMC
43.30-0.33 mean density.
}
{fig:lvgsmooth}{0.5}{0}
\subsection{Turbulence and GRSMC 43.30-0.33}
We use the density measurements in GSRMC 43.30-0.33 to infer properties of that
cloud's density distribution.
We measure the abundances of \ortho relative to \thirteenco,
$X(\ortho/\thirteenco) = 3.2\ee{-4}$ and 9.8\ee{-4} for G43.16 and G43.17
respectively, or relative to \hh, 5.8\ee{-10} and 1.7\ee{-9}, which are
entirely consistent with other measurements of $X_{\ortho}$ and allow us to use
Figure \ref{fig:lvgsmooth} for this analysis. The observed formaldehyde line
ratio $\tau_{1-1}/\tau_{2-2} \sim 6$, while the volume averaged mean density of the cloud $8
\lesssim \rho_0 < 150$.
Assuming a temperature $T=10$ K, consistent with both the \formaldehyde and CO
observations \citep{Plume2004a}, the sound speed in molecular gas is
$c_s=0.25$ $c_s=0.19$
\kms. The observed line FWHM
in G43.17 is 0.95 \kms for \formaldehyde and 1.7 \kms for
\thirteenco 1-0, so the Mach number of the turbulence is $\mathcal{M} \approx
3.8-6.8$. Assuming the thermal dominates the magnetic pressure ($\beta>>1$),
the allowed values of $\sigma_s$ range from 1.6-2.0 for $b=1$ and 1-1.3 for
$b=1/3$. If magnetic pressure is significant, the allowed values of $\sigma_s$
drop. 5.1-9.1$.
If we assume the density distribution is lognormal, we can determine the values
of the `compressibility coefficient' $b$ from Equation \ref{eqn:sigmas}.
Assuming the thermal dominates the magnetic pressure ($\beta>>1$),
the allowed values of $\sigma_s$ given the line-width based limits on
$\mathcal{M}$ range from 1.8-2.1 for $b=1$ and 1.2-1.5 for $b=1/3$. If
magnetic pressure is significant, the allowed values of $\sigma_s$ drop.
Given that the observed mean cloud density is
$n(\hh)\sim10^2 $n(\hh)\lesssim10^2 \percc$, Figure
\ref{fig:lvgsmooth} shows that only the most extreme values of $\sigma_s$ can
explain the mean density. Even if the cloud is extremely oblate, e.g. with a
line-of-sight axis $0.1\times$ the plane-of-sky axes, $\sigma_s
\gtrsim > 1.5$ is
required.
These In order to achieve a self-consistent mass and volume PDF, we use the
\citet{Hopkins2013a} distribution with the fitted relation $T = 0.25 \ln
(1+0.25 \sigma_s^4 (1+T)^{-6}$.
Using the $\sigma_s=2.5$ distribution, which is just consistent with the
observations, $T=0.29$, and based on \citet{Hopkins2013a} Figure 3, the
compressive Mach number $\mathcal{M}_c ~ 20 T \approx 5.8$. Compared to the
mach number restrictions from the line width, this $\mathcal{M}_C$ implies a
compressive-to-total ratio $b > 0.6$.
% In [74]: hopkins_pdf.T_of_sigma(2.5)
% Out[74]: 0.2906836447265763
%
% In [75]: hopkins_pdf.T_of_sigma(2.5) * 20
% Out[75]: 5.813672894531527
%
% In [76]: hopkins_pdf.T_of_sigma(2.0)
% Out[76]: 0.22018342653110817
%
% In [77]: hopkins_pdf.T_of_sigma(2.0) * 20
% Out[77]: 4.403668530622164
The restrictions on $\sigma_s$
using either assumed density distribution are
strong indications that compressive forcing must be a significant, if not
dominant, mode in this molecular cloud.
% Since magnetic fields have the
% opposite effect of compressive turbulence on the density distribution, magnetic
% fields cannot explain the observations.
% If magnetic fields are in balance with
% or dominate thermal pressure in this
cloud \todo{Look at Crutcher's measurements of B-field with Zeeman OH
observations}, cloud, $\beta\gtrsim2/3$, the forcing must
% be predominantly compressive, with
$b>0.8$. $b>1/3$.
% Crutcher & others seem not to have detected Zeeman splitting in this cloud
All of the systematic uncertainties tend to require a \emph{greater} $b$
value. Temperatures in GMCs are typically 10-20 K: warmer temperatures
increase the sound speed, decrease the Mach number, and therefore decrease
$\sigma_s$. Stronger (i.e. non-negligible) magnetic fields decrease
$\sigma_s$.
\Figure{figures/lognormalsmooth_density_distributions_sigma2.0.png}
{Example volume- and mass-weighted density distributions with $\sigma_s=2.0$.
The vertical dashed lines show $\rho = 15$ and $\rho=10^4$, approximately
corresponding to the volume-averaged mean density of GRSMC 43.30 and the
\formaldehyde-derived density}
{fig:distributions}{0.5}{0}
% For G43.16-0.03:
% {'std': 0.11326554809612598, 'med': 4.3331511700465288, 'CI': [9368.5009376639355, 21535.312095032383, 11915.556844413139], 'quantiles': {2.5: 4.08517676736491, 97.5: 4.5244074037392616, 75: 4.4038773064784564, 84.134474606854297: 4.4358245264528868, 50: 4.3331511700465288, 15.865525393145708: 4.2122132860734167, 2.2750131948179195: 4.078075142949765, 25: 4.2563141956721111, 97.724986805182084: 4.5273461301744797}, 'mad': 0.10889113037076946, 'mean': 4.3251999406282646, 'logCI': [0.24797440268161886, 4.3331511700465288, 0.19125623369273281]}
%
% \subsection{Simulated PDFs}
% \label{sec:simpdfs}
% Real turbulent PDFs are not truly lognormal, though often they are
% well-approximated as lognormals. We have used some of the PDFs from
% \citet{Federrath2012a} to perform additional smoothing and determine
% whether deviations from lognormal can explain the observed density contrasts.
%
% To perform the smoothing, we converted the simulation's volume-weighted PDF to
% a mass-weighted PDF using Equation \ref{eqn:lognormal} and used an identical
% PDF shape for each mean density (i.e., we kept the shape of the PDF the same
% but changed its mean for use in Equation \ref{eqn:tauintegral}). Results of this process
% are shown in Figure \ref{fig:rescalepdfs}.
\FigureTwoAA{figures/federrath_pdfs_volume_mach10.png}{figures/federrath_pdfs_recentered_massweighted_fitted_mach10.png}
{PDFs from \citet{Federrath2012a}. (a) Volume-weighted PDFs for various
simulations with $\mathcal{M}=10$. (b) Mass-weighted PDFs from the same
simulations as (a). These PDFs have been recentered such that they
have a % ~/work/h2co/simulations/federrath_pdfs.py
% cp ~/work/h2co/simulations/VolumeVsMassWeighting.png figures/
%\Figure{figures/VolumeVsMassWeighting.png}
%{Mass-weighted mean
overdensity $s=0$.
}{fig:rescalepdfs}{1}{5in}
In order to simplify the application of these PDFs to the LVG models, we fit
the asymmetric distributions with the sum of two lognormals with different
means. This approach allows density vs volume-weighted mean density for
an easier exploration of parameter space.
An example demonstrating that two lognormals is a
good approximation of one variety of
%turbulent distributions. The black dashed line shows the
compressive simulations is shown in Figure \ref{fig:fittedpdf}.
\Figure{figures/federrath_mach10_rescaled_massweighted_fitted.png}
{The Mach 10 compressive simulation PDF from \citet{Federrath2012a} is shown in
blue with $\rho_M = \rho_V$
%relation. The other lines show the
best-fit single relationship between $\rho_M$ and $\rho_V$
%for different lognormal
in green widths $\sigma_s = \sigma_{\ln \rho}$ and
sum values of
two lognormals in
red. $T$
%in the \citet{Hopkins2013a} distribution. The
two-lognormal approximation is a good fit to measured densities for the
simulated PDF.}
{fig:fittedpdf}{0.5}{0}
To use these fitted two-lognormal distributions, we create new PDFs consisting
of lognormals cloud
%GRSMC 43.30-0.33 are shown with
conservative error bars; the
sample amplitude \& width ratios and vertical bars show
%the 95\% confidence interval for the
same mean
differences as \formaldehyde density, while the
fit in Figure \ref{fig:fittedpdf}, but with %horizontal bars show the
total width
scaled. In Figure \ref{fig:compsmooth} [not included; see below], range $8-150$ \percc, the
reported widths for full range of geometrically
%allowed volume-averaged densities. However, the
``compressive'' distributions are \formaldehyde density measurement
%is not strictly a mass-weighted density (see Equation \ref{eqn:tauintegral}),
%so the
widths positions of the
wider, lower distribution data in
\ref{fig:fittedpdf}.
Upon further inspection, this
approximation actually does figure are somewhat misleading.
%}{fig:volvsmass}{0.5}{0}
\section{Conclusions}
We demonstrate the use of a
poor job as it
fails to reproduce novel method of inferring the
tails, which are more important than shape of the
peak. density
probability distribution in a molecular cloud using \formaldehyde densitometry
in conjunction with \thirteenco-based estimates of total cloud mass.
Our data show evidence for compressively driven turbulence in a
non-star-forming giant molecular cloud. Such high compression in a fairly
typical GMC indicates that compressive driving is probably a common feature of
all molecular clouds.
\input{solobib}
\end{document}
diff --git a/h2co_maps.tex b/h2co_maps.tex
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index 77051b2..5a3d6ee
--- a/introduction.tex
+++ b/introduction.tex
...
were taken as `follow-up' to the BGPS before it was completed.
This document primarily consists of a number of published papers centered
around a common theme of radio and millimeter observations of the Galaxy,
but
without an obvious with
the common driving
question. question being `How do stars form?' I have therefore added
thesis-specific introductions to each section to describe where they fit in to
the bigger picture of this document. I've also included sections describing
work that is not yet published but (hopefully) soon will be.
...
into many lower-mass cores.
The two main competing theoretical extremes to get around this problem are
known as the ``turbulent core''
\citep{McKee2003a,Krumholz2005a,Krumholz2009a,Tan2006a,McKee2007a} and
``competitive accretion''
\citep{Klessen2000a,Bonnell2002a,Bonnell2004a,Bonnell2006a,Bonnell2008a}
models. In the former, an additional support mechanism, turbulence, prevents
fragmentation in massive cores, allowing a single core with
$M_{core}>M_J(thermal)$ to form into a single stellar system. By contrast, the
competitive accretion model, in its most extreme form, asserts that all stars
start their lives as $\sim M_J$ cores which exist within a collapsing cloud.
They are then able to accrete additional material from the cloud and grow from
their minimum mass to populate the initial mass function (see Section
\ref{sec:massfunctions}).
Neither theory is presently able to account for feedback from the formed stars.
Massive stars drastically affect their environment when they turn on, which can
...
The mass function of GMCs was determine from CO emission towards the Galactic
plane and in nearby galaxies (e.g., M33) where they can be resolved. The CMF
was measured in nearby
($D<500$ pc) clouds where 30\arcsec\ beams easily resolve $\sim0.1$
pc cores. However, clumps are only found in large numbers in the Galactic
plane, where distances are uncertain. They cannot be resolved in other
galaxies (or at least, could not prior to ALMA).
...
populations are consistent with a Schechter distribution: a power-law
$\alpha\sim2$ with an exponential cutoff at large masses.
$$N(M)dM = C
M^{-2} e^{-M} \left(\frac{M}{M_*}\right)^{-2} e^{-(M/M_*)} dM$$
Since clusters are not drawn from the same parent distribution as GMCs (which
have $\alpha\sim1$, so $N(M) dM
= \sim C M^{-1} dM$), it is plausible that their
precursors are, instead, the intermediate-scale `clumps' observed in the
millimeter continuum. However, the clump mass function has yet to be measured,
so even this first step of determining plausibility is incomplete.
...
therefore provide some of the most useful tools for understanding stars.
As with massive stars, massive clusters are rare. Only a handful of young
massive clusters
(YMCs) are known within our Galaxy, the most prominent being NGC
3603, the Arches cluster, and Westerlund 1 \citep{PortegiesZwart2010}. These
are the only locations in the galaxy known to be forming multiple stars near
the (possible) upper stellar mass limit. Despite their importance,
only a handful of these clusters are known and the population of such clusters
is effectively unconstrained. The incomplete knowledge of clusters is due to
extinction and confusion within the Galactic plane at wavelengths where
the stars are directly observable.
diff --git a/macros.tex b/macros.tex
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index c5e78c0..9b0ad1a
--- a/macros.tex
+++ b/macros.tex
...
\newcommand{\dv}{\ensuremath{\textrm{d}v}}
\def\secref#1{Section \ref{#1}}
\def\eqref#1{Equation \ref{#1}}
\def\facility#1{#1}
%\newcommand{\arcmin}{'}
\newcommand{\necluster}{Sh~2-233IR~NE}
diff --git a/mwe.tex b/mwe.tex
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diff --git a/outerarm_outflowtable.tex b/outerarm_outflowtable.tex
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diff --git a/outerarm_outflowtable_mnras.tex b/outerarm_outflowtable_mnras.tex
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diff --git a/outflowsumtable_mnras.tex b/outflowsumtable_mnras.tex
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diff --git a/outflowtable_mnras.tex b/outflowtable_mnras.tex
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diff --git a/preface.tex b/preface.tex
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diff --git a/regionspectratable_mnras.tex b/regionspectratable_mnras.tex
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diff --git a/regiontable_mnras.tex b/regiontable_mnras.tex
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diff --git a/rotating.sty b/rotating.sty
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diff --git a/sfnewsletter.tex b/sfnewsletter.tex
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diff --git a/solobib.tex b/solobib.tex
old mode 100644
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index 414c6d4..13b7edf
--- a/solobib.tex
+++ b/solobib.tex
...
\ifstandalone
\bibliographystyle{apj_w_etal} % or "siam", or "alpha", or "abbrv"
%\bibliography{thesis} % bib database file refs.bib
\bibliography{bibdesk} \bibliography{thesis} % bib database file refs.bib
\fi
diff --git a/tables_chH2CO/Table1A_Measured.tex b/tables_chH2CO/Table1A_Measured.tex
old mode 100644
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diff --git a/tables_chH2CO/Table1B_Measured.tex b/tables_chH2CO/Table1B_Measured.tex
old mode 100644
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diff --git a/tables_chH2CO/Table2_Inferred.tex b/tables_chH2CO/Table2_Inferred.tex
old mode 100644
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diff --git a/tables_chH2CO/Table3_Derived.tex b/tables_chH2CO/Table3_Derived.tex
old mode 100644
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old mode 100644
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diff --git a/tables_chH2CO/Table4_Other.tex b/tables_chH2CO/Table4_Other.tex
old mode 100644
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diff --git a/tables_chH2CO/Table_RRLs.tex b/tables_chH2CO/Table_RRLs.tex
old mode 100644
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diff --git a/tables_chH2CO/Table_RRLs75.tex b/tables_chH2CO/Table_RRLs75.tex
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diff --git a/tables_chboundhii/boundhiitable.tex b/tables_chboundhii/boundhiitable.tex
old mode 100644
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diff --git a/thesis.bib b/thesis.bib
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
index bde3613..c42f6f8
--- a/thesis.bib
+++ b/thesis.bib
...
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title = "{Comparing the statistics of interstellar turbulence in simulations and observations. Solenoidal versus compressive turbulence forcing}",
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archivePrefix = "arXiv",
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diff --git a/thesis.cls b/thesis.cls
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/thesis.tex b/thesis.tex
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
index e4b4292..6690085
--- a/thesis.tex
+++ b/thesis.tex
...
\begin{document}
\input{introduction}
%\input{ch_iras05358} %%%\input{ch_iras05358}
\input{ch_w5}
\input{ch_v2}
\input{ch_boundhii}
\input{ch_h2co}
\input{ch_h2colarge}
% need to comment out everything in header of h2co_lowdens.tex for this piece of shit to work
\input{ch_software}
\input{ch_conclusion}
diff --git a/thesis_ginsburg_april19_2013.pdf b/thesis_ginsburg_april19_2013.pdf
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/w5_appendix.tex b/w5_appendix.tex
old mode 100644
new mode 100755