Rocks
Rocks are the primary source of all plant nutrients, except nitrogen. These nutrients are bound into a variety of crystalline structures (minerals). Minerals are either formed during rock formation from magma (primary mineral) or formed during soil formation (secondary minerals). Secondary minerals are formed when the local soil solution is saturated in respect to that mineral. In contrast to secondary minerals, for primary minerals the soil solution is generally undersaturated, causing these minerals to dissolve. But this dissolution process is extremely slow for most minerals. It has been estimated that it takes more than 30 million years to dissolve a 1 mm diameter quartz grain under natural soil
conditions conditions class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Lasaga_1984,
doi = {10.1029/jb089ib06p04009},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/jb089ib06p04009},
year = 1984,
...
author = {Antonio C. Lasaga},
title = {Chemical kinetics of water-rock interactions},
journal = {J. Geophys. Res.}
}" data-bib-key="Lasaga_1984" contenteditable="false">
Lasaga 1984. Nonetheless, soil mineral weathering provides an essential input of plant nutrients into ecosystems, avoiding or delaying nutrient
limitations limitations class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Chadwick_1999,
doi = {10.1038/17276},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/17276},
year = 1999,
...
pages = {491--497},
author = {O. A. Chadwick and L. A. Derry and P. M. Vitousek and B. J. Huebert and L. O. Hedin},
journal = {Nature}
}" data-bib-key="Chadwick_1999" contenteditable="false">
Chadwick 1999.
In 1999.
In addition, mineral weathering produces cations that counteract soil acidification, thereby improving the availability of most plant
nutrients nutrients class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{van_Breemen_1983,
doi = {10.1007/bf02369968},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02369968},
year = 1983,
...
author = {N. van Breemen and J. Mulder and C. T. Driscoll},
title = {Acidification and alkalinization of soils},
journal = {Plant Soil}
}" data-bib-key="van_Breemen_1983" contenteditable="false">
Breemen 1983. Also clays are formed as a weathering product of feldspars and
micas micas class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Oades_1988,
doi = {10.1007/bf02180317},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02180317},
year = 1988,
...
author = {J. M. Oades},
title = {The retention of organic matter in soils},
journal = {Biogeochemistry}
}" data-bib-key="Oades_1988" contenteditable="false">
Oades 1988. Clay particles contribute, with their negative charged surfaces, to the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil, reducing the leaching of positively charged nutrients like K+ and NH4+. Clay content correlates positively with water holding capacity and soil organic matter (SOM) content
class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Sollins_1996,
doi = {10.1016/s0016-7061(96)00036-5},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7061(96)00036-5},
year = 1996,
...
author = {Phillip Sollins and Peter Homann and Bruce A. Caldwell},
title = {Stabilization and destabilization of soil organic matter: mechanisms and controls},
journal = {Geoderma}
}" data-bib-key="Sollins_1996"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Sollins_1996">Sollins 1996.
Moreover, the weathering of Ca- and Mag-silicate minerals play a central role in the global carbon cycle. The Ca and Mg, released by the weathering process, will be locked up as carbonates in marine sedimentsclass="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{sundquist1985geological,
title={Geological perspectives on carbon dioxide and the carbon cycle},
author={Sundquist, Eric T},
journal={The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO: Natural Variations Archean to Present},
pages={55--59},
year={1985},
publisher={Wiley Online Library}
}" data-bib-key="sundquist1985geological"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#sundquist1985geological">Sundquist 1985. On the long-term, atmospheric CO2 is regulated by the weathering rates of these minerals, which is influenced by climate and mountain upliftclass="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Berner_2003,
doi = {10.1038/nature02131},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature02131},
year = 2003,
...
title = {The long-term carbon cycle,
fossil fuels and atmospheric composition},
journal = {Nature}
}" data-bib-key="Berner_2003"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Berner_2003">Berner 2003class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Raymo_1992,
doi = {10.1038/359117a0},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/359117a0},
year = 1992,
...
author = {M. E. Raymo and W. F. Ruddiman},
title = {Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate},
journal = {Nature}
}" data-bib-key="Raymo_1992"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Raymo_1992">Raymo 1992.
The vast amounts of nutrients locked in soil minerals has triggered, nearly 100 years ago, the question if plants actively enter this potential nutrient sourceclass="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{HALEY_1923,
doi = {10.1097/00010694-192303000-00002},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-192303000-00002},
year = 1923,
...
author = {DENNIS EDWARD HALEY},
title = {{AVAILABILITY} {OF} {POTASSIUM} {IN} {ORTHOCLASE} {FOR} {PLANT} {NUTRITION}},
journal = {Soil Science}
}" data-bib-key="HALEY_1923"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#HALEY_1923">HALEY 1923class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{TURK_1919,
doi = {10.1097/00010694-191910000-00001},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-191910000-00001},
year = 1919,
...
author = {ERNEST DE TURK},
title = {{POTASSIUM}-{BEARING} {MINERALS} {AS} A {SOURCE} {OF} {POTASSIUM} {FOR} {PLANT} {GROWTH}},
journal = {Soil Science}
}" data-bib-key="TURK_1919"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#TURK_1919">TURK 1919. Five decennia later, studies appear on the role of microorganisms, including mycorrhizal fungi, in mineral weatheringclass="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{WEBLEY_1963,
doi = {10.1111/j.1365-2389.1963.tb00935.x},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1963.tb00935.x},
year = 1963,
...
author = {D. M. WEBLEY and MOIRA E. K. HENDERSON and IRENE F. TAYLOR},
title = {{THE} {MICROBILOGY} {OF} {ROCKS} {AND} {WEATHERED} {STONES}},
journal = {Journal of Soil Science}
}" data-bib-key="WEBLEY_1963"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#WEBLEY_1963">WEBLEY 1963class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{DUFF_1963,
doi = {10.1097/00010694-196302000-00004},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-196302000-00004},
year = 1963,
...
author = {R. B. DUFF and D. M. WEBLEY and R. O. SCOTT},
title = {{SOLUBILIZATION} {OF} {MINERALS} {AND} {RELATED} {MATERIALS} {BY} 2-{KETOGLUCONIC} {ACID}-{PRODUCING} {BACTERIA}},
journal = {Soil Science}
}" data-bib-key="DUFF_1963"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#DUFF_1963">DUFF 1963class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Sperber_1958,
doi = {10.1071/ar9580778},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9580778},
year = 1958,
...
author = {JI Sperber},
title = {The incidence of apatite-solubilizing organisms in the rhizosphere and soil},
journal = {Aust. J. Agric. Res.}
}" data-bib-key="Sperber_1958"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Sperber_1958">Sperber 1958class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Boyle_1967,
doi = {10.1126/science.155.3759.193},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.155.3759.193},
year = 1967,
...
author = {J. R. Boyle and G. K. Voigt and B. L. Sawhney},
title = {Biotite Flakes: Alteration by Chemical and Biological Treatment},
journal = {Science}
}" data-bib-key="Boyle_1967"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Boyle_1967">Boyle 1967class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Boyle_1973,
doi = {10.1007/bf00011226},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00011226},
year = 1973,
...
author = {J. R. Boyle and G. K. Voigt},
title = {Biological weathering of silicate minerals},
journal = {Plant Soil}
}" data-bib-key="Boyle_1973"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Boyle_1973">Boyle 1973. More recently, a publication with the provocative title Rock eating fungi appeared in Natureclass="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Jongmans_1997,
doi = {10.1038/39493},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/39493},
year = 1997,
...
pages = {682--683},
author = {A. G. Jongmans and N. van Breemen and U. Lundström and P. A. W. van Hees and R. D. Finlay and M. Srinivasan and T. Unestam and R. Giesler and P.-A. Melkerud and M. Olsson},
journal = {Nature}
}" data-bib-key="Jongmans_1997"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Jongmans_1997">Jongmans 1997. This publication presented evidence of, presumably mycorrhizal, fungal hyphae drilling their way (chemically and/or physically) into feldspar grains. This paper initiated renewed interest into the topic. A series of reviews has been published since then, covering the research up to 2009class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Finlay_2009,
doi = {10.1016/j.fbr.2010.03.002},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2010.03.002},
year = 2009,
...
author = {Roger Finlay and Hakan Wallander and Mark Smits and Sara Holmstrom and Patrick van Hees and Bin Lian and Anna Rosling},
title = {The role of fungi in biogenic weathering in boreal forest soils},
journal = {Fungal Biology Reviews}
}" data-bib-key="Finlay_2009"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Finlay_2009">Finlay 2009class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Hoffland_2004,
doi = {10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0258:trofiw]2.0.co;2},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0258:trofiw]2.0.co;2},
year = 2004,
...
author = {Ellis Hoffland and Thomas W. Kuyper and H{\aa}kan Wallander and Claude Plassard and Anna A. Gorbushina and Kurt Haselwandter and Sara Holmström and Renske Landeweert and Ulla S. Lundström and Anna Rosling and Robin Sen and Mark M. Smits and Patrick AW van Hees and Nico van Breemen},
title = {The role of fungi in weathering},
journal = {Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment}
}" data-bib-key="Hoffland_2004"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Hoffland_2004">Hoffland 2004class="squire-citation ltx_cite" class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Landeweert_2001,
doi = {10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02122-x},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02122-x},
year = 2001,
...
author = {Renske Landeweert and Ellis Hoffland and Roger D. Finlay and Thom W. Kuyper and Nico van Breemen},
title = {Linking plants to rocks: ectomycorrhizal fungi mobilize nutrients from minerals},
journal = {Trends in Ecology {\&} Evolution}
}" data-bib-key="Landeweert_2001"style="cursor: pointer" contenteditable="false">class="au-cite-link" href="#Landeweert_2001">Landeweert 2001.
