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Introduction
Rocks are the primary source of all plant nutrients, except nitrogen. These nutrients are bound into a variety of crystalline structures (minerals). Minerals are either formed during rock formation from magma (primary mineral) or formed during soil formation (secondary minerals). Secondary minerals are formed when the local soil solution is saturated in respect to that mineral. In contrast to secondary minerals, primary minerals are formed in the earth mantle at high temperature and pressure. At the earth surface these minerals may be thermodynamically unstable. Here, in interaction with water, they either dissolve completely (congruent dissolution) or dissolve partly, leaving a solid residue like clay minerals (incongruent dissolution). This dissolution process is extremely slow for most minerals. It has been estimated that it takes more than 30 million years to dissolve a 1 mm diameter quartz grain under natural soil conditions data-bib-text="@article{Lasaga_1984,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Lasaga_1984" data-bib-text="@article{Lasaga_1984,
doi = {10.1029/jb089ib06p04009},
url {10.1029/jb089ib06p04009},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/jb089ib06p04009},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/jb089ib06p04009},
year = 1984,
publisher 1984,
publisher = {Wiley-Blackwell},
volume {Wiley-Blackwell},
volume = {89},
number {89},
number = {B6},
pages {B6},
pages = {4009},
author {4009},
author = {Antonio C. Lasaga},
title Lasaga},
title = {Chemical kinetics of water-rock interactions},
journal interactions},
journal = {J. Geophys. Res.}
}" data-bib-key="Lasaga_1984" contenteditable="false"> Res.}
}"> href="#Lasaga_1984">Lasaga 1984. Nonetheless, soil mineral weathering provides an essential input of plant nutrients into ecosystems, avoiding or delaying nutrient limitations data-bib-text="@article{Chadwick_1999,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Chadwick_1999" data-bib-text="@article{Chadwick_1999,
doi = {10.1038/17276},
url {10.1038/17276},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/17276},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/17276},
year = 1999,
month 1999,
month = {feb},
publisher {feb},
publisher = {Nature Publishing Group},
volume Group},
volume = {397},
number {397},
number = {6719},
pages {6719},
pages = {491--497},
author {491--497},
author = {O. A. Chadwick and L. A. Derry and P. M. Vitousek and B. J. Huebert and L. O. Hedin},
journal Hedin},
journal = {Nature}
}" data-bib-key="Chadwick_1999" contenteditable="false"> {Nature}
}"> href="#Chadwick_1999">Chadwick 1999.
In addition, mineral weathering produces cations that counteract soil acidification, thereby improving the availability of most plant nutrients nutrients class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{van_Breemen_1983,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="van_Breemen_1983" data-bib-text="@article{van_Breemen_1983,
doi = {10.1007/bf02369968},
url {10.1007/bf02369968},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02369968},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02369968},
year = 1983,
month 1983,
month = {oct},
publisher {oct},
publisher = {Springer Science $\mathplus$ Business Media},
volume Media},
volume = {75},
number {75},
number = {3},
pages {3},
pages = {283--308},
author {283--308},
author = {N. van Breemen and J. Mulder and C. T. Driscoll},
title Driscoll},
title = {Acidification and alkalinization of soils},
journal soils},
journal = {Plant Soil}
}" data-bib-key="van_Breemen_1983" contenteditable="false"> Soil}
}"> href="#van_Breemen_1983">Breemen 1983. Also clays are formed as a weathering product of feldspars and micas micas class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Oades_1988,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Oades_1988" data-bib-text="@article{Oades_1988,
doi = {10.1007/bf02180317},
url {10.1007/bf02180317},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02180317},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02180317},
year = 1988,
month 1988,
month = {feb},
publisher {feb},
publisher = {Springer Science $\mathplus$ Business Media},
volume Media},
volume = {5},
number {5},
number = {1},
pages {1},
pages = {35--70},
author {35--70},
author = {J. M. Oades},
title Oades},
title = {The retention of organic matter in soils},
journal soils},
journal = {Biogeochemistry}
}" data-bib-key="Oades_1988" contenteditable="false"> {Biogeochemistry}
}"> href="#Oades_1988">Oades 1988. Clay particles contribute, with their negative charged surfaces, to the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil, reducing the leaching of positively charged nutrients like K+ and NH4+. Clay content correlates positively with water holding capacity and soil organic matter (SOM) content content class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Sollins_1996,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Sollins_1996" data-bib-text="@article{Sollins_1996,
doi = {10.1016/s0016-7061(96)00036-5},
url {10.1016/s0016-7061(96)00036-5},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7061(96)00036-5},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7061(96)00036-5},
year = 1996,
month 1996,
month = {nov},
publisher {nov},
publisher = {Elsevier {BV}},
volume {BV}},
volume = {74},
number {74},
number = {1-2},
pages {1-2},
pages = {65--105},
author {65--105},
author = {Phillip Sollins and Peter Homann and Bruce A. Caldwell},
title Caldwell},
title = {Stabilization and destabilization of soil organic matter: mechanisms and controls},
journal controls},
journal = {Geoderma}
}" data-bib-key="Sollins_1996" contenteditable="false"> {Geoderma}
}"> href="#Sollins_1996">Sollins 1996.
Moreover, the weathering of Ca- and Mag-silicate Mg-silicate minerals play a central role in the global carbon cycle. The Ca and Mg, released by the weathering process, will be locked up as carbonates in marine sediments sediments class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{sundquist1985geological, contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="sundquist1985geological" data-bib-text="@article{sundquist1985geological,
title={Geological perspectives on carbon dioxide and the carbon cycle}, cycle},
author={Sundquist, Eric T}, T},
journal={The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO: Natural Variations Archean to Present},
pages={55--59},
year={1985}, Present},
pages={55--59},
year={1985},
publisher={Wiley Online Library}
}" data-bib-key="sundquist1985geological" contenteditable="false"> Library}
}"> href="#sundquist1985geological">Sundquist 1985. On the long-term, atmospheric CO2 is regulated by the weathering rates of these minerals, which is influenced by climate and mountain uplift uplift class="ltx_cite" data-bib-text="@article{Berner_2003,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Berner_2003" data-bib-text="@article{Berner_2003,
doi = {10.1038/nature02131},
url {10.1038/nature02131},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature02131},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature02131},
year = 2003,
month 2003,
month = {nov},
publisher {nov},
publisher = {Nature Publishing Group},
volume Group},
volume = {426},
number {426},
number = {6964},
pages {6964},
pages = {323--326},
author {323--326},
author = {Robert A. Berner},
title Berner},
title = {The long-term carbon cycle,
fossil cycle,
fossil fuels and atmospheric composition},
journal composition},
journal = {Nature}
}" data-bib-key="Berner_2003" contenteditable="false"> {Nature}
}"> href="#Berner_2003">Berner 2003 data-bib-text="@article{Raymo_1992,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Raymo_1992" data-bib-text="@article{Raymo_1992,
doi = {10.1038/359117a0},
url {10.1038/359117a0},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/359117a0},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/359117a0},
year = 1992,
month 1992,
month = {sep},
publisher {sep},
publisher = {Nature Publishing Group},
volume Group},
volume = {359},
number {359},
number = {6391},
pages {6391},
pages = {117--122},
author {117--122},
author = {M. E. Raymo and W. F. Ruddiman},
title Ruddiman},
title = {Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate},
journal climate},
journal = {Nature}
}" data-bib-key="Raymo_1992" contenteditable="false"> {Nature}
}"> href="#Raymo_1992">Raymo 1992.
The vast amounts of nutrients locked in soil minerals has triggered, nearly 100 years ago, the question if plants actively enter this potential nutrient source data-bib-text="@article{HALEY_1923,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="HALEY_1923" data-bib-text="@article{HALEY_1923,
doi = {10.1097/00010694-192303000-00002},
url {10.1097/00010694-192303000-00002},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-192303000-00002},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-192303000-00002},
year = 1923,
month 1923,
month = {mar},
publisher {mar},
publisher = {Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)},
volume Health)},
volume = {15},
number {15},
number = {3},
pages {3},
pages = {167--180},
author {167--180},
author = {DENNIS EDWARD HALEY},
title HALEY},
title = {{AVAILABILITY} {OF} {POTASSIUM} {IN} {ORTHOCLASE} {FOR} {PLANT} {NUTRITION}},
journal {NUTRITION}},
journal = {Soil Science}
}" data-bib-key="HALEY_1923" contenteditable="false"> Science}
}"> href="#HALEY_1923">HALEY 1923 data-bib-text="@article{TURK_1919,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="TURK_1919" data-bib-text="@article{TURK_1919,
doi = {10.1097/00010694-191910000-00001},
url {10.1097/00010694-191910000-00001},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-191910000-00001},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-191910000-00001},
year = 1919,
month 1919,
month = {oct},
publisher {oct},
publisher = {Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)},
volume Health)},
volume = {8},
number {8},
number = {4},
pages {4},
pages = {269--302},
author {269--302},
author = {ERNEST DE TURK},
title TURK},
title = {{POTASSIUM}-{BEARING} {MINERALS} {AS} A {SOURCE} {OF} {POTASSIUM} {FOR} {PLANT} {GROWTH}},
journal {GROWTH}},
journal = {Soil Science}
}" data-bib-key="TURK_1919" contenteditable="false"> Science}
}"> href="#TURK_1919">TURK 1919. Five decennia later, studies appear on the role of microorganisms, including mycorrhizal fungi, in mineral weathering data-bib-text="@article{WEBLEY_1963,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="WEBLEY_1963" data-bib-text="@article{WEBLEY_1963,
doi = {10.1111/j.1365-2389.1963.tb00935.x},
url {10.1111/j.1365-2389.1963.tb00935.x},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1963.tb00935.x},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1963.tb00935.x},
year = 1963,
month 1963,
month = {mar},
publisher {mar},
publisher = {Wiley-Blackwell},
volume {Wiley-Blackwell},
volume = {14},
number {14},
number = {1},
pages {1},
pages = {102--112},
author {102--112},
author = {D. M. WEBLEY and MOIRA E. K. HENDERSON and IRENE F. TAYLOR},
title TAYLOR},
title = {{THE} {MICROBILOGY} {OF} {ROCKS} {AND} {WEATHERED} {STONES}},
journal {STONES}},
journal = {Journal of Soil Science}
}" data-bib-key="WEBLEY_1963" contenteditable="false"> Science}
}"> href="#WEBLEY_1963">WEBLEY 1963data-bib-text="@article{DUFF_1963,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="DUFF_1963" data-bib-text="@article{DUFF_1963,
doi = {10.1097/00010694-196302000-00004},
url {10.1097/00010694-196302000-00004},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-196302000-00004},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-196302000-00004},
year = 1963,
month 1963,
month = {feb},
publisher {feb},
publisher = {Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)},
volume Health)},
volume = {95},
number {95},
number = {2},
pages {2},
pages = {105--114},
author {105--114},
author = {R. B. DUFF and D. M. WEBLEY and R. O. SCOTT},
title SCOTT},
title = {{SOLUBILIZATION} {OF} {MINERALS} {AND} {RELATED} {MATERIALS} {BY} 2-{KETOGLUCONIC} {ACID}-{PRODUCING} {BACTERIA}},
journal {BACTERIA}},
journal = {Soil Science}
}" data-bib-key="DUFF_1963" contenteditable="false"> Science}
}"> href="#DUFF_1963">DUFF 1963 data-bib-text="@article{Sperber_1958,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Sperber_1958" data-bib-text="@article{Sperber_1958,
doi = {10.1071/ar9580778},
url {10.1071/ar9580778},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9580778},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9580778},
year = 1958,
publisher 1958,
publisher = {{CSIRO} Publishing},
volume Publishing},
volume = {9},
number {9},
number = {6},
pages {6},
pages = {778},
author {778},
author = {JI Sperber},
title Sperber},
title = {The incidence of apatite-solubilizing organisms in the rhizosphere and soil},
journal soil},
journal = {Aust. J. Agric. Res.}
}" data-bib-key="Sperber_1958" contenteditable="false"> Res.}
}"> href="#Sperber_1958">Sperber 1958 data-bib-text="@article{Boyle_1967,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Boyle_1967" data-bib-text="@article{Boyle_1967,
doi = {10.1126/science.155.3759.193},
url {10.1126/science.155.3759.193},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.155.3759.193},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.155.3759.193},
year = 1967,
month 1967,
month = {jan},
publisher {jan},
publisher = {American Association for the Advancement of Science ({AAAS})},
volume ({AAAS})},
volume = {155},
number {155},
number = {3759},
pages {3759},
pages = {193--195},
author {193--195},
author = {J. R. Boyle and G. K. Voigt and B. L. Sawhney},
title Sawhney},
title = {Biotite Flakes: Alteration by Chemical and Biological Treatment},
journal Treatment},
journal = {Science}
}" data-bib-key="Boyle_1967" contenteditable="false"> {Science}
}"> href="#Boyle_1967">Boyle 1967 data-bib-text="@article{Boyle_1973,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Boyle_1973" data-bib-text="@article{Boyle_1973,
doi = {10.1007/bf00011226},
url {10.1007/bf00011226},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00011226},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00011226},
year = 1973,
month 1973,
month = {feb},
publisher {feb},
publisher = {Springer Science $\mathplus$ Business Media},
volume Media},
volume = {38},
number {38},
number = {1},
pages {1},
pages = {191--201},
author {191--201},
author = {J. R. Boyle and G. K. Voigt},
title Voigt},
title = {Biological weathering of silicate minerals},
journal minerals},
journal = {Plant Soil}
}" data-bib-key="Boyle_1973" contenteditable="false"> Soil}
}"> href="#Boyle_1973">Boyle 1973. More recently, a publication with the provocative title Rock eating fungi appeared in Nature data-bib-text="@article{Jongmans_1997,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Jongmans_1997" data-bib-text="@article{Jongmans_1997,
doi = {10.1038/39493},
url {10.1038/39493},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/39493},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/39493},
year = 1997,
month 1997,
month = {oct},
publisher {oct},
publisher = {Nature Publishing Group},
volume Group},
volume = {389},
number {389},
number = {6652},
pages {6652},
pages = {682--683},
author {682--683},
author = {A. G. Jongmans and N. van Breemen and U. Lundström and P. A. W. van Hees and R. D. Finlay and M. Srinivasan and T. Unestam and R. Giesler and P.-A. Melkerud and M. Olsson},
journal Olsson},
journal = {Nature}
}" data-bib-key="Jongmans_1997" contenteditable="false"> {Nature}
}"> href="#Jongmans_1997">Jongmans 1997. This publication presented evidence of, presumably mycorrhizal, fungal hyphae drilling their way (chemically and/or physically) into feldspar grains. This paper initiated renewed interest into the topic. A series of reviews has been published since then, covering the research up to 2009 data-bib-text="@article{Finlay_2009,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Finlay_2009" data-bib-text="@article{Finlay_2009,
doi = {10.1016/j.fbr.2010.03.002},
url {10.1016/j.fbr.2010.03.002},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2010.03.002},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2010.03.002},
year = 2009,
month 2009,
month = {nov},
publisher {nov},
publisher = {Elsevier {BV}},
volume {BV}},
volume = {23},
number {23},
number = {4},
pages {4},
pages = {101--106},
author {101--106},
author = {Roger Finlay and Hakan Wallander and Mark Smits and Sara Holmstrom and Patrick van Hees and Bin Lian and Anna Rosling},
title Rosling},
title = {The role of fungi in biogenic weathering in boreal forest soils},
journal soils},
journal = {Fungal Biology Reviews}
}" data-bib-key="Finlay_2009" contenteditable="false"> Reviews}
}"> href="#Finlay_2009">Finlay 2009 data-bib-text="@article{Hoffland_2004,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Hoffland_2004" data-bib-text="@article{Hoffland_2004,
doi = {10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0258:trofiw]2.0.co;2},
url {10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0258:trofiw]2.0.co;2},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0258:trofiw]2.0.co;2},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0258:trofiw]2.0.co;2},
year = 2004,
month 2004,
month = {jun},
publisher {jun},
publisher = {Wiley-Blackwell},
volume {Wiley-Blackwell},
volume = {2},
number {2},
number = {5},
pages {5},
pages = {258--264},
author {258--264},
author = {Ellis Hoffland and Thomas W. Kuyper and H{\aa}kan Wallander and Claude Plassard and Anna A. Gorbushina and Kurt Haselwandter and Sara Holmström and Renske Landeweert and Ulla S. Lundström and Anna Rosling and Robin Sen and Mark M. Smits and Patrick AW van Hees and Nico van Breemen},
title Breemen},
title = {The role of fungi in weathering},
journal weathering},
journal = {Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment}
}" data-bib-key="Hoffland_2004" contenteditable="false"> Environment}
}"> href="#Hoffland_2004">Hoffland 2004 data-bib-text="@article{Landeweert_2001,
doi contenteditable="false" data-bib-key="Landeweert_2001" data-bib-text="@article{Landeweert_2001,
doi = {10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02122-x},
url {10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02122-x},
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02122-x},
year {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02122-x},
year = 2001,
month 2001,
month = {may},
publisher {may},
publisher = {Elsevier {BV}},
volume {BV}},
volume = {16},
number {16},
number = {5},
pages {5},
pages = {248--254},
author {248--254},
author = {Renske Landeweert and Ellis Hoffland and Roger D. Finlay and Thom W. Kuyper and Nico van Breemen},
title Breemen},
title = {Linking plants to rocks: ectomycorrhizal fungi mobilize nutrients from minerals},
journal minerals},
journal = {Trends in Ecology {\&} Evolution}
}" data-bib-key="Landeweert_2001" contenteditable="false"> Evolution}
}"> href="#Landeweert_2001">Landeweert 2001.
Since 2009, more evidence of mycorrhizal weathering has been published, based on in vitro *in vitro* and microcosm based research. A new aspect is the effect of the arise of different types of mycorrhizal fungi during the evolution of land plants on mineral weathering rates, and thus the global carbon cycle. The gap between laboratory based studies and the real world has been bridged by a number of field based studied and mathematical modeling. So far, evidence of a substantial role of mycorrhizal fungi on soil mineral weathering has been missing, while modeling studies show contrasting results.
In this book chapter we briefly introduce the basics of physical and chemical weathering mechanisms, as insight in these mechanisms is of vital importance in the interpretation of results from laboratory based experiments and modeling studies. Next, we give an overview of the recent literature on this topic, and set their results in perspective with the current knowledge on mineral dissolution kinetics.
