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\section*{Introduction}
It is common knowledge that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons within the atom exist in different excited states, or energy levels, which differ with the number of protons and neutrons within in atom. The Coulomb potential is the reason for the confinement of electrons, ans we must consider the various interactions taking place between the electrons and protons in the atom to think about the Coulomb potential. Hydrogen is simple—it only has one interaction, the interaction between its one electron and one proton. Helium has two electrons and two protons, so it has six interactions. Lithium, with three protons and three electrons, has fifteen interactions, and so on and so forth.
Apart from the Coulomb interaction, there are two other main factors can effect the energy levels of electrons within an atom: internal and external fields and spin-spin interaction between all of the fermions in the atom. Both internal and external fields must be taken into account as these fields perturb the energy levels. Electrons, protons, and neutrons all possess intrinsic spin while electrons also have orbital angular momentum. All of these interactions also perturb the energy levels. The spin-spin interaction between the outermost electron and the nucleus results in hyperfine structure. The experimental result is a splitting of the energy levels that can usually only be observed at cold temperatures. Temperature and laser power can cause broadening of the absorption curve, but does not shift the levels.
