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Sebastian Kozuch added Introduction.tex
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Metal-catalyzed hydrofunctionalization of alkenes offers the
potential to control the regioselectivity, diastereoselectivity,
and enantioselectivity of the addition process and to form
products from readily accessible starting materials without the
formation of waste. Metal-catalyzed hydrofunctionalizations also
could be more tolerant of auxiliary functionality than acidcatalyzed
additions and could occur without the rearrangements
that are characteristic of acid-catalyzed additions to alkenes.
Hydroamination (the addition of a N−H bond across an
unsaturated C−C bond) remains one of the most studied
transformations in hydrofunctionalization chemistry,1 but hydroetherification
(the addition of an O−H bond across an
unsaturated C−C bond) is much less developed.
The ether products of hydroetherification are more often
formed by substitution reactions than addition reactions.2 The
electrophiles in substitution reactions are typically prepared by a
multistep sequence that includes oxidation or reduction and
functional group interconversion or activation of an alcohol.
Moreover, these substitution reactions generate salt byproducts.
Alternatively, ethers are formed by acid-catalyzed additions of
alcohols to alkenes.3 However, these additions often require
strong acids and high temperatures, form side products from
isomerization of carbocationic intermediates, and occur without
control of the product stereochemistry. Moreover, acid-catalyzed
additions of phenols to alkenes occur with competitive reaction
of the alkene at the O−H bond and at an ortho or para C−H
bond.4 Metal-catalyzed hydroetherification would exploit the
abundance and stability of alkene starting materials and could
overcome many of the limitations of the classical syntheses of
ethers.
However, current hydroetherification reactions are limited in
scope. Most reported metal-catalyzed hydroetherifications of
unsaturated C−C bonds are intramolecular and occur with C−C
multiple bonds that are more reactive than those of unactivated
alkenes.5 Cationic gold complexes catalyze the cyclization of
allenyl alcohols in high yield with excellent ee, but the reactions
do not occur intermolecularly or with monoenes.6 Likewise, Ir,
Pd, Pt, and lanthanide complexes catalyze intramolecular
additions of alcohols to alkenes and alkynes, but intermolecular
additions to alkenes catalyzed by such complexes are unknown.7
Intermolecular hydroetherification of allenes with both carboxylic
acids and phenols to form allylic ethers has been reported to
occur in high yield and ee in the presence of a Rh catalyst, but the
reactions do not occur with monoenes.8 Finally, intermolecular
additions of alcohols to unstrained, isolated alkenes have been
reported to occur in the presence of triflates of coinage metals.9
In these cases, the reactions form side products that are
characteristic of carbocation intermediates.10