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Automatically generated by Mendeley Desktop 1.13.4  Any changes to this file will be lost if it is regenerated by Mendeley.  BibTeX export options can be customized via Preferences -> BibTeX in Mendeley Desktop  @article{Wagner2002,  author = {Wagner, V and von Glasow, R. and Fischer, H. and Crutzen, P. J.},  doi = {10.1029/2001JD000722},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Are CH2O measurements in the marine boundarylayer suitable for testing the current understandingof CH4 photooxidation?- A model study.pdf:pdf},  issn = {0148-0227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {diurnal,formaldehyde},  mendeley-tags = {diurnal,formaldehyde},  pages = {4029--4042},  title = {{Are CH2O measurements in the marine boundary layer suitable for testing the current understanding of CH4 photooxidation?: A model study}},  url = {http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2002/2001JD000722.shtml},  volume = {107},  year = {2002}  }  @article{Zeng2012,  abstract = {We analyse the carbon monoxide (CO), ethane (C2H6) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) partial columns (from the ground to 12 km) derived from measurements by ground-based solar Fourier Transform Spectroscopy at Lauder, New Zealand (45 degrees S, 170 degrees E), and at Arrival Heights, Antarctica (78 degrees S, 167 degrees E), from 1997 to 2009. Significant negative trends are calculated for all species at both locations, based on the daily-mean observed time series, namely CO (-0.94 +/- 0.47\% yr(-1)), C2H6 (-2.37 +/- 1.18\% yr(-1)) and HCN (-0.93 +/- 0.47\% yr(-1)) at Lauder and CO (-0.92 +/- 0.46\% yr(-1)), C2H6 (-2.82 +/- 1.37\% yr(-1)) and HCN (-1.41 +/- 0.71\% yr(-1)) at Arrival Heights. The uncertainties reflect the 95\% confidence limits. However, the magnitudes of the trends are influenced by the anomaly associated with the 1997-1998 El Nino Southern Oscillation event at the beginning of the time series reported. We calculate trends for each month from 1997 to 2009 and find negative trends for all months. The largest monthly trends of CO and C2H6 at Lauder, and to a lesser degree at Arrival Heights, occur during austral spring during the Southern Hemisphere tropical and subtropical biomass burning period. For HCN, the largest monthly trends occur in July and August at Lauder and around November at Arrival Heights. The correlations between CO and C2H6 and between CO and HCN at Lauder in September to November, when the biomass burning maximizes, are significantly larger that those in other seasons. A tropospheric chemistry-climate model is used to simulate CO, C2H6, and HCN partial columns for the period of 1997-2009, using interannually varying biomass burning emissions from GFED3 and annually periodic but seasonally varying emissions from both biogenic and anthropogenic sources. The model-simulated partial columns of these species compare well with the measured partial columns and the model accurately reproduces seasonal cycles of all three species at both locations. However, while the model satisfactorily captures both the seasonality and trends in HCN, it is not able to reproduce the negative trends in either C2H6 or CO. A further simulation assuming a 35\% decline of C2H6 and a 26\% decline of CO emissions from the industrial sources from 1997 to 2009 largely captures the observed trends of C2H6 and CO partial columns at both locations. Here we attribute trends in HCN exclusively to changes in biomass burning and thereby isolate the influence of anthropogenic emissions as responsible for the long-term decline in CO and C2H6. This analysis shows that biomass burning emissions are the main factors in controlling the interannual and seasonal variations of these species. We also demonstrate contributions of biomass burning emission from different southern tropical and sub-tropical regions to seasonal and interannual variations of CO at Lauder; it shows that long-range transport of biomass burning emissions from southern Africa and South America have consistently larger year-to-year contributions to the background seasonality of CO at Lauder than those from other regions (e.g. Australia and South-East Asia). However, large interannual anomalies are triggered by variations in biomass burning emissions associated with large-scale El Nino Southern Oscillation and prolonged biomass burning events, e.g. the Australian bush fires.},  author = {Zeng, G. and Wood, S. W. and Morgenstern, O. and Jones, N. B. and Robinson, J. and Smale, D.},  doi = {10.5194/acp-12-7543-2012},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Trends and variations in CO, C2H6, and HCN.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {1680-7316},  issn = {16807316},  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics},  keywords = {Arrival Heights,Lauder,biomass burning,carbon monoxide,cyanide,ethane,other model},  mendeley-tags = {Arrival Heights,Lauder,biomass burning,carbon monoxide,cyanide,ethane,other model},  pages = {7543--7555},  title = {{Trends and variations in CO, C2H6, and HCN in the Southern Hemisphere point to the declining anthropogenic emissions of CO and C2H6}},  volume = {12},  year = {2012}  }  @misc{Yantosca2014,  author = {Yantosca, B and Sulprizio, M and Long, M and Philip, S},  keywords = {GEOS-Chem},  mendeley-tags = {GEOS-Chem},  title = {{GEOS-Chem Online User's Guide}},  urldate = {2015-03-06},  year = {2014}  }  @article{Dlugokencky2003,  abstract = {The globally-averaged atmospheric methane abundance determined from an extensive network of surface air sampling sites was constant at \~{}1751 ppb from 1999 through 2002. Assuming that the methane lifetime has been constant, this implies that during this 4-year period the global methane budget has been at steady state. We also observed a significant decrease in the difference between northern and southern polar zonal annual averages of CH4 from 1991 to 1992. Using a 3-D transport model, we show that this change is consistent with a decrease in CH4 emissions of \~{}10 Tg CH4 from north of 50N in the early-1990s. This decrease in emissions may have accelerated the global methane budget towards steady state. Based on current knowledge of the global methane budget and how it has changed with time, it is not possible to tell if the atmospheric methane burden has peaked, or if we are only observing a persistent, but temporary pause in its increase.},  author = {Dlugokencky, E. J. and Houweling, S. and Bruhwiler, L. and Masarie, K. A. and Lang, P. M. and Miller, J. B. and Tans, P. P.},  doi = {10.1029/2003GL018126},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Atmospheric methane levels off- Temporary pause or a new steady state?.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0094-8276},  issn = {0094-8276},  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},  keywords = {doi:10.1029/2003GL018126,http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003GL018126,methane},  mendeley-tags = {methane},  number = {19},  pages = {3--6},  pmid = {15829951},  title = {{Atmospheric methane levels off: Temporary pause or a new steady-state?}},  volume = {30},  year = {2003}  }  @article{Dameris2013,  abstract = {This paper reviews the current state and development of different numerical model classes that are used to simulate the global atmospheric system, particularly Earth’s climate and climate-chemistry connections. The focus is on Chemistry-Climate Models. In general, these serve to examine dynamical and chemical processes in the Earth atmosphere, their feedback, and interaction with climate. Such models have been established as helpful tools in addition to analyses of observational data. Definitions of the global model classes are given and their capabilities as well as weaknesses are discussed. Examples of scientific studies indicate how numerical exercises contribute to an improved understanding of atmospheric behavior. There, the focus is on synergistic investigations combining observations and model results. The possible future developments and challenges are presented, not only from the scientific point of view but also regarding the computer technology and respective consequences for numerical modeling of atmospheric processes. In the future, a stronger cross-linkage of subject-specific scientists is necessary, to tackle the looming challenges. It should link the specialist discipline and applied computer science.},  author = {Dameris, Martin and J\"{o}ckel, Patrick},  doi = {10.3390/atmos4020132},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Numerical Modeling of Climate-Chemistry Connections- Recent Developments and Future Challenges.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {10.3390/atmos4020132},  issn = {20734433},  journal = {Atmosphere},  keywords = {Atmospheric circulation,CTM,Climate change,Earth-System Model,Future projection,High-performance computing,Ozone layer,Ozone-climate connection,Stratosphere,Stratospheric water vapor,Troposphere},  mendeley-tags = {CTM},  pages = {132--156},  title = {{Numerical modeling of climate-chemistry connections: Recent developments and future challenges}},  volume = {4},  year = {2013}  }  @article{Edwards2006,  author = {Edwards, D P and Emmons, L K and Gille, J C and Chu, A and Attie, J and Giglio, L and Drummond, J R},  doi = {10.1029/2005JD006655},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Satellite-observed pollution from Southern Hemisphere biomass burning.pdf:pdf},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  pages = {1--17},  title = {{Satellite-observed pollution from Southern Hemisphere biomass burning}},  volume = {111},  year = {2006}  }  @article{Deutscher2010,  author = {Deutscher, N. M. and Griffith, D. W T and Bryant, G. W. and Wennberg, P. O. and Toon, G. C. and Washenfelder, R. a. and Keppel-Aleks, G. and Wunch, D. and Yavin, Y. and Allen, N. T. and Blavier, J. F. and Jim\'{e}nez, R. and Daube, B. C. and Bright, a. V. and Matross, D. M. and Wofsy, S. C. and Park, S.},  doi = {10.5194/amt-3-947-2010},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Total column CO2 measurements at Darwin, Australia – site description and calibration against in situ aircraft profiles.pdf:pdf},  issn = {18671381},  journal = {Atmospheric Measurement Techniques},  keywords = {Darwin,FTS},  mendeley-tags = {Darwin,FTS},  pages = {947--958},  title = {{Total column CO2 measurements at Darwin, Australia - Site description and calibration against in situ aircraft profiles}},  volume = {3},  year = {2010}  }  @article{Li2000,  author = {Li, Qinbin and Jacob, Daniel J and Bey, Isabelle and Yan, Robert M and Zhao, Yongjing and Kondo, Yutaka and Notholt, Justus},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Atmospheric Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)-Biomass Burning Source, Ocean Sink? .pdf:pdf},  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},  keywords = {cyanide},  mendeley-tags = {cyanide},  number = {3},  pages = {357--360},  title = {{Atmospheric hydrogen cyanide (HCN): biomass burning source, ocean sink?}},  volume = {27},  year = {2000}  }  @article{Galanter2002,  abstract = {This study utilizes the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration$\backslash$nGeophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory three-dimensional global chemical$\backslash$ntransport model to quantify the impacts of biomass burning on$\backslash$ntropospheric concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides$\backslash$n(NOx), and ozone (O-3). We construct updated global sources that emit$\backslash$n748 Tg CO/yr and 7.8 Tg N/yr in the surface layer. Both sources include$\backslash$nsix types of biomass: forest, savanna, fuelwood, agricultural residues,$\backslash$ndomestic crop residues (burned in the home for cooking and/or heating),$\backslash$nand dried animal waste. Timing for the burning of forest, savanna, and$\backslash$nagricultural residues is based upon regional cultural use of fire,$\backslash$nvegetation type, local climate, and information gathered from satellite$\backslash$nobservations, while emissions from the burning of fuelwood, domestic$\backslash$ncrop residues, and dried animal waste are constant throughout the year.$\backslash$nBased on agreement with observations, particularly of CO, we conclude$\backslash$nthat the collective uncertainty in our biomass burning sources is much$\backslash$nless than the factor of two suggested by previous estimates of biomass$\backslash$nburned in the tropics annually. Overall, biomass burning is a major$\backslash$nsource of CO and NOx in the northern high latitudes during the summer$\backslash$nand fall and in the tropics throughout most of the year. While it$\backslash$ncontributes more than 50\% of both the NOx and CO in the boundary layer$\backslash$nover major source regions, it has a much larger global impact on the$\backslash$nCO-distribution in comparison to either NOx or O-3, contributing 15 to$\backslash$n30\% of the entire tropospheric CO background. The only significant$\backslash$nbiomass burning contribution to NOx at 500 mbar, due to the short$\backslash$nlifetime of NOx in the lower troposphere, is a plume occurring July$\backslash$nthrough October in the Southern Hemisphere subtropical free troposphere,$\backslash$nstretching from South America to the western Pacific. The largest$\backslash$nimpacts on O-3 are limited to those regions where NOx impacts are large$\backslash$nas well. Near the surface, biomass burning indirectly contributes less$\backslash$nthan half of the total O-3 concentrations over major tropical source$\backslash$nregions, up to 15\% throughout the year in the tropics, and 10 to 20\%$\backslash$nthroughout the Southern Hemisphere during September through November. At$\backslash$n500 mbar, the largest contribution to O-3 (20 - 30\%) is correlated with$\backslash$nthe NOx plume during July through November. Biomass burning contributes$\backslash$nless than 15\% of either NOx or O-3 in the upper troposphere.},  author = {Galanter, Meredith and Levy, Hiram and Carmichael, Gregory R.},  doi = {10.1016/S0140-6701(02)85427-3},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Impacts of biomass burning on tropospheric CO, NOx and O3.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0747-7309},  issn = {01406701},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {carbon monoxide,nitrous oxides,ozone},  mendeley-tags = {carbon monoxide,nitrous oxides,ozone},  pages = {6633--6653},  title = {{Impacts of biomass burning on tropospheric CO, NOx, and O3}},  volume = {105},  year = {2000}  }  @article{Levy1971,  abstract = {A steady-state model of the normal (unpolluted) surface atmosphere predicts a daytime concentration of hydroxyl, hydroperoxyl, and methylperoxyl radicals approaching 5 x 10(8)molecules per cubic centimeter and a formaldehyde concentration of 5 x 10(10) molecules per cubic centimeter or 2 parts per billion. A radical chain reaction is proposed for the rapid removal of carbon monoxide, leading to a carbon monoxide lifetime as low as 0.2 year in the surface atmosphere.},  author = {Levy, H},  doi = {10.1126/science.173.3992.141},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Normal Atmosphere- Large Radical and Formaldehyde Concentrations Predicted.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {00368075},  issn = {0036-8075},  journal = {Science (New York, N.Y.)},  keywords = {carbon monoxide,hydroxyl radical},  mendeley-tags = {carbon monoxide,hydroxyl radical},  number = {July},  pages = {141--143},  pmid = {17739642},  title = {{Normal atmosphere: large radical and formaldehyde concentrations predicted.}},  volume = {173},  year = {1971}  }  @article{Holzinger1999,  abstract = {Using a novel experimental technique, based on proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry, from measurements of emissions from laboratory scale biomass burning experiments, we have estimated the source strengths of several potential HOx producing gases: formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, methanol and acetone. The derived global average emissions are 5\&\#8211;13; 3.8\&\#8211;10; 1.5\&\#8208;4; 2.3\&\#8208;6.1 Tg y\&\#8722;1, respectively. The resulting global average HOx production from photochemical decay of these gases is 3 × 109 molecules cm\&\#8722;2 s\&\#8722;1. Although relatively small in a global context, these emissions are significant for the photochemistry in fresh fire plumes. From our measurements are also estimated global source strengths from biomass burning for CH3CN and HCN of 0.4\&\#8208;1.0; 0.2\&\#8208;0.6 Tg y\&\#8722;1 respectively. The biomass burning emissions of CH3CN may well dominate the global source of this compound, which thus might well be a unique tracer for biomass burning. Some discrepancies between experimental studies must, however, be resolved.},  author = {Holzinger, Rupert and Warneke, Carsten and Hansel, Armin and Jordan, Alfons and Lindinger, Werner and Scharffe, Dieter H. and Schade, Gunnar and Crutzen, Paul J.},  doi = {10.1029/1999GL900156},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Biomass Burning as a Source of Formaldehyde, Acetaldehyde, Methanol, Acetone, Acetonitrile, and Hydrogen Cyanide.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0094-8276},  issn = {0094-8276},  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},  keywords = {cyanide,formaldehyde,methanol},  mendeley-tags = {cyanide,formaldehyde,methanol},  number = {8},  pages = {1161--1164},  title = {{Biomass burning as a source of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, methanol, acetone, acetonitrile, and hydrogen cyanide}},  volume = {26},  year = {1999}  }  @phdthesis{Miller2009,  author = {Miller, Christopher},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Chris Miller Honours Thesis - Methane Sources.pdf:pdf},  school = {University of Wollongong},  title = {{Using the Global Chemical Transport Model GEOS-Chem to Constrain Australian Methane Sources}},  year = {2009}  }  @incollection{Burrows2011,  address = {Heidelberg},  author = {Burrows, John P and Platt, Ulrich and Borrell, Peter},  booktitle = {The Remote Sensing of Tropospheric Composition From Space},  chapter = {1},  keywords = {IR},  mendeley-tags = {IR},  pages = {1--61},  publisher = {Springer Verlag},  title = {{Tropospheric Remote Sensing from Space}},  url = {http://www.iup.uni-bremen.de/materials/remsensingbook/},  year = {2011}  }  @article{Pfister2008,  abstract = {[1] We present a study of the sensitivity of isoprene emission calculations in a global chemistry transport model (CTM) to input land cover characteristics and analyze the impacts of changes in isoprene on the tropospheric budgets of atmospheric key species. The CTM Model for Ozone and Related Chemical Species, version 4 (MOZART-4) includes the online calculation of isoprene emissions based on the Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN), which is driven by three different land parameter inputs. We also included a tagging scheme in the CTM, which keeps track of the production of carbon containing species from isoprene oxidation. It is found that the amount of tropospheric carbon monoxide (CO), formaldehyde ( HCHO) and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) explained by isoprene oxidation ranges from 9-16\%, 15-27\%, and 22-32\%, depending on the isoprene emissions scenario. Changes in the global tropospheric burden with different land cover inputs can reach up to 10\% for CO, 15\% for HCHO, and 20\% for PAN. Changes for ozone are small on a global scale, but regionally differences are as large as 3DU in the tropospheric column and as large as 5 ppbv in the surface concentrations. Our results demonstrate that a careful integration of isoprene emissions and chemistry in CTMs is very important for simulating the budgets of a number of atmospheric trace gases. We further demonstrate that the model tagging scheme has the capability of improving conventional methods of constraining isoprene emissions from space-borne HCHO column observations, especially in regions where a considerable part of the variability in the HCHO column is not related to isoprene.},  author = {Pfister, G. G. and Emmons, L. K. and Hess, P. G. and Lamarque, J. F. and Orlando, J. J. and Walters, S. and Guenther, A. and Palmer, P. I. and Lawrence, P. J.},  doi = {10.1029/2007JD008948},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Contribution of isoprene to chemical budgets-A model tracer study with the NCAR CTM MOZART-4.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0148-0227},  issn = {01480227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},  keywords = {carbon monoxide,formaldehyde},  mendeley-tags = {carbon monoxide,formaldehyde},  pages = {1--21},  title = {{Contribution of isoprene to chemical budgets: A model tracer study with the NCAR CTM MOZART-4}},  volume = {113},  year = {2008}  }  @article{Rinsland2002,  author = {Rinsland, Curtis P. and Jones, Nicholas B. and Connor, Brian J. and Wood, Stephen W. and Goldman, Aaron and Stephen, Thomas M. and Murcray, Frank J. and Chiou, Linda S. and Zander, Rodolphe and Mahieu, Emmanuel},  doi = {10.1029/2001JD000748},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Multiyear infrared solar spectroscopic measurements of HCN, CO,C2H6,andC2H2tropospheric columns above Lauder, New Zealand(45°S latitude).pdf:pdf},  issn = {0148-0227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {Lauder},  mendeley-tags = {Lauder},  pages = {1--12},  title = {{Multiyear infrared solar spectroscopic measurements of HCN, CO, C2H6, and C2H2 tropospheric columns above Lauder, New Zealand (45 degrees S latitude)}},  url = {http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2002/2001JD000748.shtml},  volume = {107},  year = {2002}  }  @article{Holzinger2001,  abstract = {Diurnal variations on a time scale of minutes of the mixing ratios of methanol were measured using proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) technique during 67 days throughout the time span from November 1996 to July 1998 together with benzene and other volatile organic compounds at the western outskirts of Innsbruck, Austria. Comparison with the course of the mixing ratio of benzene, which served as marker for traffic emissions, as well as the observation of a seasonal variation allowed to distinguish between different sources for methanol release into the troposphere. Strong evidence for methanol removal via deposition on dew-wetted surfaces is obtained from the comparison of meteorological data with methanol mixing ratios. The mean volume mixing ratio of total methanol was 7.5 nmol mol(-1). Mixing ratios ranged from 0.03 up to 45 nmol mol(-1). (C) 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.},  author = {Holzinger, R and Jordan, A and Hansel, A and Lindinger, W},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Methanol measurements in the lower troposphere near Innsbruck (047316N$\backslash$; 011324E), Austria.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {1352-2310},  journal = {Atmospheric Environment},  keywords = {benzene,biogenic,c emissions,methanol,proton transfer reaction mass,spectrometry,tra,volatile organic compounds},  mendeley-tags = {methanol},  pages = {2525--2532},  title = {{Methanol measurements in the lower troposphere near Innsbruck (047 degrees 16 ' N; 011 degrees 24 ' E), Austria}},  volume = {35},  year = {2001}  }  @article{Macdonald1993,  author = {Macdonald, Robert C and Fall, Ray},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/DETECTION OF SUBSTANTIAL EMISSIONS OF METHANOL FROM PLANTS TO THE ATMOSPHERE .pdf:pdf},  journal = {Atmospheric Environment},  keywords = {biogenic emissions,index,methanol,methanol fuels,photochemistry,rose ii,rural oxidants in the,southern environment,tropospheric,volatile organic compounds},  mendeley-tags = {methanol},  pages = {1709--1713},  title = {{Detection of substantial emissions of methanol form plants tot he atmosphere}},  volume = {27},  year = {1993}  }  @article{Novelli1992,  abstract = {Carbon monoxide (CO) mixing ratios were measured in air samples collected weekly at eight locations. The air was collected as part of the CMDL/NOAA cooperative flask sampling program (Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, formerly Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change, Air Resources Laboratory/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) at Point Barrow, Alaska (71-degrees-N). Niwot Ridge, Colorado (40-degrees-N), Mauna Loa and Cape Kumakahi, Hawaii (19-degrees-N), Guam, Marianas Islands (13-degrees-N), Christmas Island (2-degrees-N), Ascension Island (8-degrees-S) and American Samoa (14-degrees-S). Half-liter or 3-L glass flasks fitted with glass piston stopcocks holding teflon 0 rings were used for sample collection. CO levels were determined within several weeks of collection using gas chromatography followed by mercuric oxide reduction detection, and mixing ratios were referenced against the CMDL/NOAA carbon monoxide standard scale. During the period of study (mid-1988 through December 1990) CO levels were greatest in the high latitudes of the northern hemisphere (mean mixing ratio from January 1989 to December 1990 at Point Barrow was approximately 154 ppb) and decreased towards the south (mean mixing ratio at Samoa over a similar period was 65 ppb). Mixing ratios varied seasonally, the amplitude of the seasonal cycle was greatest in the north and decreased to the south. Carbon monoxide levels were affected by both local and regional scale processes. The difference in CO levels between northern and southern latitudes also varied seasonally. The greatest difference in CO mixing ratios between Barrow and Samoa was observed during the northern winter (about 150 ppb). The smallest difference, 40 ppb, occurred during the austral winter. The annually averaged CO difference between 71-degrees-N and 14-degrees-S was approximately 90 ppb in both 1989 and 1990; the annually averaged interhemispheric gradient from 71-degrees-N to 41-degrees-S is estimated as approximately 95 ppb.},  author = {Novelli, Paul C. and Steele, L. Paul and Tans, Pieter P.},  doi = {10.1029/92JD02010},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Mixing Ratios of Carbon Monoxide in the Tropospher.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0148-0227},  issn = {0148-0227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {carbon monoxide},  mendeley-tags = {carbon monoxide},  pages = {20731--20750},  title = {{Mixing ratios of carbon monoxide in the troposphere}},  volume = {97},  year = {1992}  }  @incollection{Seiler1987,  address = {New York},  author = {Seiler, Wolfgang and Conrad, Ralf},  booktitle = {The geophysiology of Amazonia: vegetation and climate interactions},  chapter = {9},  editor = {Dickinson, Robert E.},  keywords = {carbon monoxide},  mendeley-tags = {carbon monoxide},  pages = {133--162},  publisher = {John Wiley \& Sons Inc.},  title = {{Contribution of tropical ecosystems to the global budget og trace gases, especially CH4, H2, CO, and N2O}},  year = {1987}  }  @article{Novelli1998,  abstract = {Since 1988, the distribution of carbon monoixde (CO) in the lower troposphere has been determined using a globally distributed air sampling network. Site locations range from 82 degrees N to 90 degrees S, with wide longitudinal coverage, and represent the marine boundary layer, regionally polluted atmospheres, and the free troposphere. These measurements present a unique, intercalibrated, and internally consistent data set that are used to better define the global temporal and spatial distribution of CO. In this paper, times series from 49 sites are discussed. With an average lifetime of similar to 2 months, CO showed significant concentration gradients. In the lowest in the southern summer (35-45 ppb). The interhemispheric gradients showed strong seasonality with a minimum difference between the high latitudes of the northern and southern hemisphere (160-180 ppb) in February and March and a minimum in Jury and August (10-20 ppb). higher CO was found in regions near human development relative to those over more remote areas. The distributions provide additional evidence of the widespread pollution of the lower atmosphere. Remote areas in the high northern hemisphere are polluted by anthropogenic activities in the middle latitudes, and those in the southern hemisphere are heavily influence by the burning of biomass in the tropics. While tropospheric concentrations of CO exhibit periods of increase and decrease, the globally averaged CO mixing ratio over the period from 1990 through 1995 decreased at a rate of approximately 2 ppb yr(-1).},  author = {Novelli, P. C. and Masarie, K. a. and Lang, P. M.},  doi = {10.1029/98JD01366},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Distributions and recent changes of carbon monoxide in the lower troposphere.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0747-7309},  issn = {0148-0227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {carbon monoxide,doi:10.1029/98JD01366,http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/98JD01366},  mendeley-tags = {carbon monoxide},  pages = {19015--19033},  title = {{Distributions and recent changes of carbon monoxide in the lower troposphere}},  volume = {103},  year = {1998}  }  @article{Singh2001,  abstract = {The presence of oxygenated organic compounds in the troposphere strongly influences key atmospheric processes. Such oxygenated species are, for example, carriers of reactive nitrogen and are easily photolysed, producing free radicals-and so influence the oxidizing capacity and the ozone-forming potential of the atmosphere-and may also contribute significantly to the organic component of aerosols. But knowledge of the distribution and sources of oxygenated organic compounds, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, is limited. Here we characterize the tropospheric composition of oxygenated organic species, using data from a recent airborne survey conducted over the tropical Pacific Ocean (30 degrees N to 30 degrees S). Measurements of a dozen oxygenated chemicals (carbonyls, alcohols, organic nitrates, organic pernitrates and peroxides), along with several C2-C8 hydrocarbons, reveal that abundances of oxygenated species are extremely high, and collectively, oxygenated species are nearly five times more abundant than non-methane hydrocarbons in the Southern Hemisphere. Current atmospheric models are unable to correctly simulate these findings, suggesting that large, diffuse, and hitherto-unknown sources of oxygenated organic compounds must therefore exist. Although the origin of these sources is still unclear, we suggest that oxygenated species could be formed via the oxidation of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere, the photochemical degradation of organic matter in the oceans, and direct emissions from terrestrial vegetation.},  author = {Singh, H and Chen, Y and Staudt, A and Jacob, D and Blake, D and Heikes, B and Snow, J},  doi = {10.1038/35074067},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Evidence from thePaci®c troposphere forlargeglobalsources of oxygenated organic compounds.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0028-0836},  issn = {0028-0836},  journal = {Nature},  keywords = {formaldehyde},  mendeley-tags = {formaldehyde},  number = {April 1999},  pages = {1078--1081},  pmid = {11323667},  title = {{Evidence from the Pacific troposphere for large global sources of oxygenated organic compounds.}},  volume = {410},  year = {2001}  }  @article{Rinsland2009,  abstract = {Atmospheric CH3OH (methanol) free tropospheric (2.09–14-km altitude) time series spanning 22 years has been analyzed on the basis of high-spectral resolution infrared solar absorption spectra of the strong n8 band recorded from the U.S. National Solar Observatory on Kitt Peak (latitude 31.9N, 111.6W, 2.09-km altitude) with a 1-m Fourier transform spectrometer (FTS). The measurements span October 1981 to December 2003 and are the first long time series of CH3OH measurements obtained from the ground. The results were analyzed with SFIT2 version 3.93 and show a factor of three variations with season, a maximum at the beginning of July, a winter minimum, and no statistically significant long-term trend over the measurement time span.},  author = {Rinsland, Curtis P. and Mahieu, Emmanuel and Chiou, Linda and Herbin, Herve},  doi = {10.1029/2008JD011003},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/First ground-based infrared solar absorption measurements of free tropospheric methanol (CH3OH)- Multidecade infrared time series from Kitt Peak (31.9N 111.6W)- Trend, seasonal cycle, and comparison with previous measurements.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0148-0227},  issn = {01480227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},  keywords = {methanol},  mendeley-tags = {methanol},  pages = {1--7},  title = {{First ground-based infrared solar absorption measurements of free tropospheric methanol (CH3OH): Multidecade infrared time series from Kitt Peak (31.9°N 111.6°W): Trend, seasonal cycle, and comparison with previous measurements}},  volume = {114},  year = {2009}  }  @incollection{Seinfeld2006,  address = {Hoboken},  author = {Seinfeld, John H and Pandis, Spyros N},  booktitle = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change},  chapter = {25},  edition = {Second},  keywords = {CTM},  mendeley-tags = {CTM},  pages = {1092--1135},  publisher = {John Wiley \& Sons Inc.},  title = {{Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models}},  year = {2006}  }  @article{Jacob2005,  abstract = {We use a global three-dimensional model simulation of atmospheric methanol to examine the consistency between observed atmospheric concentrations and current understanding of sources and sinks. Global sources in the model include 128 Tg yr\&\#8722;1 from plant growth, 38 Tg yr\&\#8722;1 from atmospheric reactions of CH3O2 with itself and other organic peroxy radicals, 23 Tg yr\&\#8722;1 from plant decay, 13 Tg yr\&\#8722;1 from biomass burning and biofuels, and 4 Tg yr\&\#8722;1 from vehicles and industry. The plant growth source is a factor of 3 higher for young than from mature leaves. The atmospheric lifetime of methanol in the model is 7 days; gas-phase oxidation by OH accounts for 63\% of the global sink, dry deposition to land 26\%, wet deposition 6\%, uptake by the ocean 5\%, and aqueous-phase oxidation in clouds less than 1\%. The resulting simulation of atmospheric concentrations is generally unbiased in the Northern Hemisphere and reproduces the observed correlations of methanol with acetone, HCN, and CO in Asian outflow. Accounting for decreasing emission from leaves as they age is necessary to reproduce the observed seasonal variation of methanol concentrations at northern midlatitudes. The main model discrepancy is over the South Pacific, where simulated concentrations are a factor of 2 too low. Atmospheric production from the CH3O2 self-reaction is the dominant model source in this region. A factor of 2 increase in this source (to 50\&\#8211;100 Tg yr\&\#8722;1) would largely correct the discrepancy and appears consistent with independent constraints on CH3O2 concentrations. Our resulting best estimate of the global source of methanol is 240 Tg yr\&\#8722;1. More observations of methanol concentrations and fluxes are needed over tropical continents. Better knowledge is needed of CH3O2 concentrations in the remote troposphere and of the underlying organic chemistry.},  author = {Jacob, Daniel J. and Field, Brendan D. and Li, Qinbin and Blake, Donald R. and de Gouw, Joost and Warneke, Carsten and Hansel, Armin and Wisthaler, Armin and Singh, Hanwant B. and Guenther, A.},  doi = {10.1029/2004JD005172},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Global budget of methanol- Constraints from atmospheric observations.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0148-0227},  issn = {01480227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research D: Atmospheres},  keywords = {doi:10.1029/2004JD005172,http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005172,methanol,tropospheric chemistry,volatile organic compounds},  mendeley-tags = {methanol},  pages = {1--17},  title = {{Global budget of methanol: Constraints from atmospheric observations}},  volume = {110},  year = {2005}  }  @article{Gloudemans2006,  author = {Gloudemans, A M S and Krol, M C and Meirink, J F and Laat, A T J De and Werf, G R Van Der and Schrijver, H and Broek, M M P Van Den and Aben, I},  doi = {10.1029/2006GL026804},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Evidence for long-range transport of carbon monoxide in the Southern Hemisphere from SCIAMACHY observations.pdf:pdf},  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},  keywords = {doi:10.1029/2006GL026804,http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026804},  pages = {1--5},  title = {{Evidence for long-range transport of carbon monoxide in the Southern Hemisphere from SCIAMACHY observations}},  volume = {33},  year = {2006}  }  @article{Jones2007,  abstract = {Long-term total column measurements of formaldehyde (HCHO) covering a 12 year period from 1992 to 2004 are reported from spectra recorded with a high-resolution Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS) using the sun as a light source at a Southern Hemisphere site (Lauder, New Zealand). The ambient HCHO concentrations at this rural location are often at background levels (<250 ppt) typical for remote marine environments. Due to these low values of HCHO, which are often at or below the detection limit of standard techniques, a method of analysis has been developed that successfully produces HCHO columns with sufficient sensitivity throughout the whole season. The HCHO column over Lauder was found to have a strong seasonal cycle (±50\%), with a mean column of 4.2×10¹⁵ molecules cm^-2, the maximum occurring in the summer. A simple box model of CH₄ oxidation reproduces the seasonal cycle, but significantly underestimates the maximum HCHO ground concentrations deduced from the column observations, particularly in summer. This implies the existence of a significant source of HCHO that cannot be explained by oxidation of CH₄ alone. The ground-based FTS column data compares well with collocated HCHO column measurements from the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME) satellite instrument (r²=0.65, mean bias=10\%, n=48).},  author = {Jones, N. B. and Riedel, K. and Allan, W. and Wood, S. and Palmer, P. I. and Chance, K. and Notholt, J.},  doi = {10.5194/acpd-7-14543-2007},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Long-term tropospheric formaldehyde concentrations deduced from gronnd-based fourier transform solar infrared measurements.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {1680-7316},  issn = {1680-7375},  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics},  keywords = {Lauder,formaldehyde,seasonal},  mendeley-tags = {Lauder,formaldehyde,seasonal},  pages = {7131--7142},  title = {{Long-term tropospheric formaldehyde concentrations deduced from ground-based fourier transform solar infrared measurements}},  volume = {9},  year = {2009}  }  @article{Rinsland2001,  abstract = {High spectral resolution (0.004 cm(-1)) infrared solar absorption$\backslash$nmeasurements Of CO, C2H6, and HCN have been recorded with the Fourier$\backslash$ntransform spectrometer located at the Network for the Detection of$\backslash$nStratospheric Change complementary station at the University of$\backslash$nWollongong, Australia (34.45 degreesS, 150.88 degreesE, 30 m above sea$\backslash$nlevel). The time series covers March 1997 to February 1998. Profile$\backslash$nretrievals with maximum sensitivity in the upper troposphere show$\backslash$ndistinct seasonal cycles for all three molecules with maxima during$\backslash$nOctober-December 1997. Best fits to the time series of daily averages$\backslash$nyield peak 0.03-14 km columns (molecules cm(-2)) of 1.54 X 10(18) for$\backslash$nCO, 8.56 X 10(15) for C2H6, and 6.56 X 10(15) for HCN during austral$\backslash$nspring. Mixing ratio profiles of all three molecules during this time$\backslash$nshow maxima in the upper troposphere. Isentropic back trajectories$\backslash$nsuggest the elevated CO, C2H6, and HCN columns above Wollongong$\backslash$noriginated from southern Africa or South America with no significant$\backslash$ncontribution from the intense tropical Asian emissions during the strong$\backslash$nEl Nino event of 1997-1998.},  author = {Rinsland, C P and Meier, A and Griffith, D W T and Chiou, L S},  doi = {10.1029/2000JD000318},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Ground-based measurements of tropospheric CO, C2H6, and HCN from Australia at 34oS latitude during 1997-1998.pdf:pdf},  issn = {2169-897X},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres},  keywords = {Wollongong,carbon monoxide,cyanide,ethane},  mendeley-tags = {Wollongong,carbon monoxide,cyanide,ethane},  pages = {20913--20924},  title = {{Ground-based measurements of tropospheric CO, C2H6, and HCN from Australia at 34 degrees S latitude during 1997-1998}},  volume = {106},  year = {2001}  }  @article{Khalil1983,  author = {Khalil, M. A. K. and Rasmussen, R. A.},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Carbon Monoxide in the Earth's Atmosphere- Increasing Trend.pdf:pdf},  journal = {Science},  keywords = {carbon monoxide},  mendeley-tags = {carbon monoxide},  number = {February 1984},  pages = {54--56},  title = {{Carbon monoxide in the Earth's atmosphere: Increasing trend}},  volume = {224},  year = {1983}  }  @misc{Crutzen1999,  abstract = {We present a largely tutorial overview of the main processes that influence the photochemistry of the background troposphere. This is mostly driven by the photolysis of ozone by solar ultraviolet radiation of wavelengths shorter than about 340 nm, resulting in production of excited O(1D) atoms, whose reaction with water vapor produces OH radicals. In the background atmosphere the OH radicals mostly react with CO, and with CH4 and some of its oxidation products, which in turn are oxidized by OH. Depending on the availability of NOx catalysts, ozone may be produced or destroyed in amounts that are much greater than the downward flux of ozone from the stratosphere to the troposphere. Using the 3D chemical-transport model MATCH, global distributions and budget analyses are presented for tropospheric O3, CH4, CO, and the “odd hydrogen” compounds OH, HO2 and H2O2. We show that OH is present in maximum concentrations in the tropics, and that most of the chemical breakdown of CO and CH4 also occurs in equatorial regions. We also split the troposphere into continental and marine regions, and show that there is a tremendous difference in photochemical O3 and OH production for these regions, much larger than the difference between the northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere. Finally, we show the results from a numerical simulation in which we reduced the amount of ozone in the model stratosphere by a factor of 10 (which in turn reduced the flux of O3 into the troposphere by about the same factor). Nevertheless, for summer conditions, model calculated O3 mixing ratios below 5 km in the mid to high latitudes were about 70–90\% as high as those calculated with the full downward flux of ozone from the stratosphere. This indicates that, at least under these conditions, O3 concentrations in the lower troposphere are largely controlled by in situ photochemistry, with only a secondary influence from stratospheric influx.},  author = {Crutzen, Paul J. and Lawrence, Mark G. and P\"{o}schl, Ulrich},  booktitle = {Tellus, Series A: Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography},  doi = {10.1034/j.1600-0870.1999.t01-1-00010.x},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/On the background photochemistry of tropospheric ozone.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0280-6495},  issn = {02806495},  keywords = {formaldehyde,ozone},  mendeley-tags = {formaldehyde,ozone},  pages = {123--146},  title = {{On the background photochemistry of tropospheric ozone}},  volume = {51},  year = {1999}  }  @article{Fraser2011,  author = {Fraser, Annemarie and Miller, Christopher Chan and Palmer, Paul I. and Deutscher, Nicholas M. and Jones, Nicholas B. and Griffith, David W T},  doi = {10.1029/2011JD015964},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/The Australian methane budget- Interpreting surface and train‐borne measurements using a chemistry transport model.pdf:pdf},  issn = {01480227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},  pages = {1--23},  title = {{The Australian methane budget: Interpreting surface and train-borne measurements using a chemistry transport model}},  volume = {116},  year = {2011}  }  @article{Guenther2006,  abstract = {Reactive gases and aerosols are produced by terrestrial ecosystems, processed within plant canopies, and can then be emitted into the above-canopy atmosphere. Estimates of the above-canopy fluxes are needed for quantitative earth system studies and assessments of past, present and future air quality and climate. The Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN) is described and used to quantify net terrestrial biosphere emission of isoprene into the atmosphere. MEGAN is designed for both global and regional emission modeling and has global coverage with \~{}1 km2 spatial resolution. Field and laboratory investigations of the processes controlling isoprene emission are described and data available for model development and evaluation are summarized. The factors controlling isoprene emissions include biological, physical and chemical driving variables. MEGAN driving variables are derived from models and satellite and ground observations. Tropical broadleaf trees contribute almost half of the estimated global annual isoprene emission due to their relatively high emission factors and because they are often exposed to conditions that are conducive for isoprene emission. The remaining flux is primarily from shrubs which have a widespread distribution. The annual global isoprene emission estimated with MEGAN ranges from about 500 to 750 Tg isoprene (440 to 660 Tg carbon) depending on the driving variables which include temperature, solar radiation, Leaf Area Index, and plant functional type. The global annual isoprene emission estimated using the standard driving variables is \~{}600 Tg isoprene. Differences in driving variables result in emission estimates that differ by more than a factor of three for specific times and locations. It is difficult to evaluate isoprene emission estimates using the concentration distributions simulated using chemistry and transport models, due to the substantial uncertainties in other model components, but at least some global models produce reasonable results when using isoprene emission distributions similar to MEGAN estimates. In addition, comparison with isoprene emissions estimated from satellite formaldehyde observations indicates reasonable agreement. The sensitivity of isoprene emissions to earth system changes (e.g., climate and land-use) demonstrates the potential for large future changes in emissions. Using temperature distributions simulated by global climate models for year 2100, MEGAN estimates that isoprene emissions increase by more than a factor of two. This is considerably greater than previous estimates and additional observations are needed to evaluate and improve the methods used to predict future isoprene emissions.},  author = {Guenther, a. and Karl, T. and Harley, P. and Wiedinmyer, C. and Palmer, P. I. and Geron, C.},  doi = {10.5194/acpd-6-107-2006},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Estimates of global terrestrial isoprene emissions using MEGAN.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {1680-7316},  issn = {16807375},  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions},  keywords = {MEGAN,isoprene,methane},  mendeley-tags = {MEGAN,isoprene,methane},  pages = {107--173},  title = {{Estimates of global terrestrial isoprene emissions using MEGAN (Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature)}},  volume = {6},  year = {2006}  }  @article{VanDerWerf2010,  abstract = {New burned area datasets and top-down constraints from atmospheric concentration measurements of pyrogenic gases have decreased the large uncertainty in fire emissions estimates. However, significant gaps remain in our understanding of the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural waste, and peat fires to total global fire emissions. Here we used a revised version of the Carnegie-Ames-Stanford-Approach (CASA) biogeochemical model and improved satellite-derived estimates of area burned, fire activity, and plant productivity to calculate fire emissions for the 19972009 period on a 0.5 spatial resolution with a monthly time step. For November 2000 onwards, estimates were based on burned area, active fire detections, and plant productivity from the MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor. For the partitioning we focused on the MODIS era. We used maps of burned area derived from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS) and Along-Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR) active fire data prior to MODIS (19972000) and estimates of plant productivity derived from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) observations during the same period. Average global fire carbon emissions according to this version 3 of the Global Fire Emissions Database (GFED3) were 2.0 Pg C year1 with significant interannual variability during 19972001 (2.8 Pg C year1 in 1998 and 1.6 Pg C year1 in 2001). Globally, emissions during 20022007 were relatively constant (around 2.1 Pg C year1) before declining in 2008 (1.7 Pg C year1) and 2009 (1.5 Pg C year1) partly due to lower deforestation fire emissions in South America and tropical Asia. On a regional basis, emissions were highly variable during 20022007 (e.g., boreal Asia, South America, and Indonesia), but these regional differences canceled out at a global level. During the MODIS era (20012009), most carbon emissions were from fires in grasslands and savannas (44\%) with smaller contributions from tropical deforestation and degradation fires (20\%), woodland fires (mostly confined to the tropics, 16\%), forest fires (mostly in the extratropics, 15\%), agricultural waste burning (3\%), and tropical peat fires (3\%). The contribution from agricultural waste fires was likely a lower bound because our approach for measuring burned area could not detect all of these relatively small fires. Total carbon emissions were on average 13\% lower than in our previous (GFED2) work. For reduced trace gases such as CO and CH4, deforestation, degradation, and peat fires were more important contributors because of higher emissions of reduced trace gases per unit carbon combusted compared to savanna fires. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation, degradation, and peatland fires were on average 0.5 Pg C year1. The carbon emissions from these fires may not be balanced by regrowth following fire. Our results provide the first global assessment of the contribution of different sources to total global fire emissions for the past decade, and supply the community with an improved 13-year fire emissions time series.},  author = {{Van Der Werf}, G. R. and Randerson, J. T. and Giglio, L. and Collatz, G. J. and Mu, M. and Kasibhatla, P. S. and Morton, D. C. and Defries, R. S. and Jin, Y. and {Van Leeuwen}, T. T.},  doi = {10.5194/acp-10-11707-2010},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {1016153201},  issn = {16807316},  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics},  keywords = {GEOS-Chem,GFED3},  mendeley-tags = {GEOS-Chem,GFED3},  pages = {11707--11735},  title = {{Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997-2009)}},  volume = {10},  year = {2010}  }  @article{Millet2008,  abstract = {We use a global 3-D chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem) to interpret new aircraft, surface, and oceanic observations of methanol in terms of the constraints that they place on the atmospheric methanol budget. Recent measurements of methanol concentrations in the ocean mixed layer (OML) imply that in situ biological production must be the main methanol source in the OML, dominating over uptake from the atmosphere. It follows that oceanic emission and uptake must be viewed as independent terms in the atmospheric methanol budget. We deduce that the marine biosphere is a large primary source (85 Tg a−1) of methanol to the atmosphere and is also a large sink (101 Tg a−1), comparable in magnitude to atmospheric oxidation by OH (88 Tg a−1). The resulting atmospheric lifetime of methanol in the model is 4.7 days. Aircraft measurements in the North American boundary layer imply that terrestrial plants are a much weaker source than presently thought, likely reflecting an overestimate of broadleaf tree emissions, and this is also generally consistent with surface measurements. We deduce a terrestrial plant source of 80 Tg a−1, comparable in magnitude to the ocean source. The aircraft measurements show a strong correlation with CO (R2=0.51−0.61) over North America during summer. We reproduce this correlation and slope in the model with the reduced plant source, which also confirms that the anthropogenic source of methanol must be small. Our reduced plant source also provides a better simulation of methanol observations over tropical South America.},  author = {Millet, D. B. and Jacob, D. J. and Custer, T. G. and de Gouw, J. a. and Goldstein, a. H. and Karl, T. and Singh, H. B. and Sive, B. C. and Talbot, R. W. and Warneke, C. and Williams, J.},  doi = {10.5194/acpd-8-7609-2008},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/New constraints on terrestrial and oceanic sources of atmospheric methanol.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {1680-7316},  issn = {1680-7375},  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions},  keywords = {methanol},  mendeley-tags = {methanol},  pages = {7609--7655},  title = {{New constraints on terrestrial and oceanic sources of atmospheric methanol}},  volume = {8},  year = {2008}  }  @article{Fischer2007,  author = {Fischer, Herbert and Funke, Bernd and Glatthor, Norbert and Grabowski, Udo and Kellmann, Sylvia and Kiefer, Michael and Linden, Andrea and Milz, Mathias and Steck, Tilman and Stiller, Gabriele P. and Bernath, Peter F. and Blom, C. E. and Blumenstock, T. and Boone, Christopher D. and Chance, K. and Coffey, M. T. and Friedl-Vallon, F. and Griffith, D. and Hannigan, J. W. and Hase, F. and Jones, N. and Jucks, K. W. and Keim, C. and Kleinert, A. and Kouker, W. and Liu, G. Y. and Mahieu, E. and Mellqvist, J. and Mikuteit, S. and Notholt, J. and Oelhaf, H. and Piesch, C. and Reddmann, Thomas and Ruhnke, R. and Schneider, M. and Strandberg, A. and Toon, Geoffrey C. and Walker, Kaley a. and Warneke, T. and Wetzel, G. and Wood, S. and Zander, R.},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Validation of MIPAS ClONO2 measurements.pdf:pdf},  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics},  keywords = {Lauder,Wollongong},  mendeley-tags = {Lauder,Wollongong},  pages = {257--281},  title = {{Validation of MIPAS ClONO2 measurements}},  volume = {7},  year = {2007}  }  @article{Warneke1999,  abstract = {In this paper, attention is called to the significance of abiological production of partially oxidized volatile organic carbons (POVOCs) from the decay of dead plant material Measured relative emission of acetone and methanol can be at least 10-4 and 3 - 5 x 10-4 g g-1 of decaying dry plant matter, respectively. If these results may be extrapolated, global annual emissions of 6-8 Tg of acetone and 18 - 40 Tg of methanol would result, adding strongly to the estimated total emissions of these compounds to the atmosphere. Because acetone and methanol, through OH and HO2 formation, play significant roles in the chemistry of the atmosphere, further research is strongly needed to quantify the emissions of acetone, methanol, and other POVOCs.},  author = {Warneke, Carsten and Karl, Thomas and Judmaier, Helmut and Hansel, Armin and Jordan, Alfons and Lindinger, Werner and Crutzen, Paul J.},  doi = {10.1029/98GB02428},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Acetone, methanol, and other partially oxidized volatile organic emissions from dead plant matter by abiological processes- Significance for atmospheric HOx chemistry.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0886-6236},  issn = {08866236},  journal = {Global Biogeochemical Cycles},  keywords = {methanol},  mendeley-tags = {methanol},  number = {1},  pages = {9--17},  title = {{Acetone, methanol, and other partially oxidized volatile organic emissions from dead plant matter by abiological processes: Significance for atmospheric HO(X) chemistry}},  volume = {13},  year = {1999}  }  @article{Murcray1989,  author = {Murcray, Frank J and Matthews, Andrew and Goldman, Aaron and Johnston, Paul and Rinsland, Curtis},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/NH3 column abundances over Lauder, New Zealand.pdf:pdf},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {Lauder,ammonia},  mendeley-tags = {Lauder,ammonia},  pages = {2235--2238},  title = {{NH3 column abundances over Lauder, New Zealand}},  volume = {94},  year = {1989}  }  @article{Sussmann2011,  abstract = {We present a strategy (MIR-GBM v1.0) for the retrieval of column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of methane (XCH(4)) with a precision <0.3\% (1-sigma diurnal variation, 7-min integration) and a seasonal bias <0.14\% from mid-infrared ground-based solar FTIR measurements of the Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC, comprising 22 FTIR stations). This makes NDACC methane data useful for satellite validation and for the inversion of regional-scale sources and sinks in addition to long-term trend analysis. Such retrievals complement the high accuracy and precision near-infrared observations of the younger Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON) with time series dating back 15 years or so before TCCON operations began. MIR-GBM v1.0 is using HITRAN 2000 (including the 2001 update release) and 3 spectral micro windows (2613.70-2615.40 cm(-1), 2835.50-2835.80 cm(-1), 2921.00-2921.60 cm(-1)). A first-order Tikhonov constraint is applied to the state vector given in units of per cent of volume mixing ratio. It is tuned to achieve minimum diurnal variation without damping seasonality. Final quality selection of the retrievals uses a threshold for the goodness of fit (chi(2) < 1) as well as for the ratio of root-mean-square spectral noise and information content (<0.15 \%). Column-averaged dry-air mole fractions are calculated using the retrieved methane profiles and four-times-daily pressure-temperature-humidity profiles from National Center for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) interpolated to the time of measurement. MIR-GBM v1.0 is the optimum of 24 tested retrieval strategies (8 different spectral micro-window selections, 3 spectroscopic line lists: HITRAN 2000, 2004, 2008). Dominant errors of the non-optimum retrieval strategies are systematic HDO/H(2)O-CH(4) interference errors leading to a seasonal bias up to approximate to 5 \%. Therefore interference errors have been quantified at 3 test sites covering clear-sky integrated water vapor levels representative for all NDACC sites (Wollongong maximum = 44.9 mm, Garmisch mean = 14.9 mm, Zugspitze minimum = 0.2 mm). The same quality ranking of the 24 strategies was found for all 3 test sites with one optimum, i.e. MIR-GBM v1.0. Seasonality of XCH(4) above the Zugspitze (47 degrees N) shows a minus-sine shape with a minimum in March/April, a maximum in September, and an amplitude of 16.2 +/- 2.9 ppb (0.94 +/- 0.17 \%). This agrees well with the WFM-DOAS v2.0 scientific XCH(4) retrieval product. A conclusion from this paper is that improved spectroscopic parameters for CH(4), HDO, and H(2)O in the 2613-2922 cm(-1) spectral domain are urgently needed. If such become available with sufficient accuracy, at least two more spectral micro windows could be utilized leading to another improvement in precision. The absolute inter-calibration of NDACC MIR-GBM v1.0 XCH(4) to TCCON data is subject of ongoing work},  author = {Sussmann, R. and Forster, F. and Rettinger, M. and Jones, N.},  doi = {10.5194/amt-4-1943-2011},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Strategy for high-accuracy-and-precision retrieval of atmospheric methane from the mid-infrared FTIR network.pdf:pdf},  issn = {18671381},  journal = {Atmospheric Measurement Techniques},  keywords = {NDACC,Wollongong},  mendeley-tags = {NDACC,Wollongong},  pages = {1943--1964},  title = {{Strategy for high-accuracy-and-precision retrieval of atmospheric methane from the mid-infrared FTIR network}},  volume = {4},  year = {2011}  }  @misc{Hu2011,  abstract = {We present over one year (January 2010-February 2011) of continuous atmospheric methanol measurements from the University of Minnesota tall tower Trace Gas Observatory (KCMP tall tower; 244 m a. g. l.), and interpret the dataset in terms of constraints on regional methanol sources and seasonality. The seasonal cycle of methanol concentrations observed at the KCMP tall tower is generally similar to that simulated by a global 3-D chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem, driven with MEGANv2.0 biogenic emissions) except the seasonal peak occurs similar to 1 month earlier in the observations, apparently reflecting a model underestimate of emission rates for younger versus older leaves. Based on a source tracer approach, which we evaluate using GEOS-Chem and with multiple tracers, we estimate that anthropogenic emissions account for approximately 40\% of ambient methanol abundance during winter and 10\% during summer. During daytime in summer, methanol concentrations increase exponentially with temperature, reflecting the temperature sensitivity of the biogenic source, and the observed temperature dependence is statistically consistent with that in the model. Nevertheless, summertime concentrations are underestimated by on average 35\% in the model for this region. The seasonal importance of methanol as a source of formaldehyde (HCHO) and carbon monoxide (CO) is highest in spring through early summer, when biogenic methanol emissions are high but isoprene emissions are still relatively low. During that time observed methanol concentrations account for on average 20\% of the total CO and HCHO production rates as simulated by GEOS-Chem, compared to 12\% later in the summer and 12\% on an annual average basis. The biased seasonality in the model means that the photochemical role for methanol early in the growing season is presently underestimated.},  author = {Hu, L. and Millet, D. B. and Mohr, M. J. and Wells, K. C. and Griffis, T. J. and Helmig, D.},  booktitle = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics},  doi = {10.5194/acp-11-11145-2011},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Sources and seasonality of atmospheric methanol based on tall tower measurements in the US Upper Midwest.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {1117473201},  issn = {16807316},  pages = {11145--11156},  title = {{Sources and seasonality of atmospheric methanol based on tall tower measurements in the US Upper Midwest}},  volume = {11},  year = {2011}  }  @article{Bey2001,  abstract = {We present a first description and evaluation of GEOS-CHEM, a global three-dimensional (3-D) model of tropospheric chemistry driven by assimilated meteorological observations from the Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS) of the NASA Data Assimilation Office (DAO). The model is applied to a 1-year simulation of tropospheric ozone-NOx-hydrocarbon chemistry for 1994, and is evaluated with observations both for 1994 and for other years. It reproduces usually to within 10 ppb the concentrations of ozone observed from the worldwide ozonesonde data network. It simulates correctly the seasonal phases and amplitudes of ozone concentrations for different regions and altitudes, but tends to underestimate the seasonal amplitude at northern midlatitudes. Observed concentrations of NO and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) observed in aircraft campaigns are generally reproduced to within a factor of 2 and often much better. Concentrations of HNO3 in the remote troposphere are overestimated typically by a factor of 2-3, a common problem in global models that may reflect a combination of insufficient precipitation scavenging and gas-aerosol partitioning not resolved by the model. The model yields an atmospheric lifetime of methylchloroform (proxy for global OH) of 5.1 years, as compared to a best estimate from observations of 5.5 plus or minus 0.8 years, and simulates H2O2 concentrations observed from aircraft with significant regional disagreements but no global bias. The OH concentrations are approximately 20\% higher than in our previous global 3-D model which included an UV-absorbing aerosol. Concentrations of CO tend to be underestimated by the model, often by 10-30 ppb, which could reflect a combination of excessive OH (a 20\% decrease in model OH could be accommodated by the methylchloroform constraint) and an underestimate of CO sources (particularly biogenic). The model underestimates observed acetone concentrations over the South Pacific in fall by a factor of 3; a missing source from the ocean may be implicated.},  author = {Bey, Isabelle and Jacob, Daniel J. and Yantosca, Robert M. and Logan, Jennifer a. and Field, Brendan D. and Fiore, Arlene M. and Li, Qin-Bin and Liu, Hong-Yu and Mickley, Loretta J. and Schultz, Martin G.},  doi = {10.1029/2001JD000807},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Global modeling of tropospheric chemistry with assimilated meteorology- Model description and evaluation.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0148-0227},  issn = {0148-0227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {CTM,GEOS-Chem},  mendeley-tags = {CTM,GEOS-Chem},  pages = {73--95},  title = {{Global Modeling of Tropospheric Chemistry with Assimilated Meteorology: Model Description and Evaluation}},  volume = {106},  year = {2001}  }  @article{Griffith1998,  abstract = {We have made extensive measurements of total column OCS by ground-based high-resolution solar Fourier transform infrared absorption spectroscopy from two southern hemisphere sites to complement earlier measurements in the northern hemisphere and to investigate the interhemispheric ratio, variability, and seasonal cycles of OCS in the atmosphere. The measurements were made at Lauder, New Zealand (45.0 degrees S, 169.7 degrees E, 370 m asl, 537 spectra March 1993 through April 1997), and Wollongong, Australia (34.45 degrees S, 150.88 degrees E 30 m asl, 358 spectra May 1996 through April 1997). The annual mean column amounts are 9.15 x 10(15) molecules cm(-2) above Lauder and 9.84 x 10(15) molecules cm(-2) above Wollongong, corresponding to tropospheric mixing ratios of 480 and 490 parts per trillion by volume, respectively, with the assumed mixing ratio vertical profiles. The secular trend in total column OCS is less than 1\% per year. Variability of all measurements about the means implies an atmospheric lifetime for OCS of at least 2.8 years. Comparison with earlier measurements in the northern hemisphere yields a north/south interhemispheric ratio in the range 1.1-1.2. There are peak-to-peak apparent annual cycles in total column OCS of 6\% at Lauder and 18\% at Wollongong with a late summer maximum. Seasonal tropopause height variation accounts for a 5-6\% amplitude, and the remainder of the amplitude in Wollongong is assumed to be due to changes in the tropospheric mixing ratio.},  author = {Griffith, David W. T. and Jones, Nicholas B. and Matthews, W. Andrew},  doi = {10.1029/97JD03462},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Interhemispheric ratio and annual cycle of carbonyl sulfide (OCS) total colum from ground-based dolar FTIR spectra.pdf:pdf},  issn = {0148-0227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {Lauder,Wollongong,doi:10.1029/97JD03462,http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/97JD03462},  mendeley-tags = {Lauder,Wollongong},  pages = {8447--8454},  title = {{Interhemispheric ratio and annual cycle of carbonyl sulfide (OCS) total column from ground-based solar FTIR spectra}},  volume = {103},  year = {1998}  }  @misc{EC-JRC/PBL2009,  author = {{European Commission}, Joint Research Centre P. B. L.},  keywords = {EDGAR,Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research,GEOS-Chem,climate change unit,eu,european comission,european union,institute for environment and sustainability,joint research centre},  mendeley-tags = {EDGAR,GEOS-Chem},  title = {{Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR)}},  url = {http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/},  urldate = {2015-03-05},  year = {2009}  }  @phdthesis{Buchholz2014,  author = {Buchholz, Rebecca Rhiannon},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Rebecca Buchholz PhD - Tropospheric Composition.pdf:pdf},  pages = {1--20},  school = {University of Wollongong},  title = {{Tropospheric Composition in the Southern Hemisphere , Investigated with Spectroscopic Measurements and Global Models}},  year = {2014}  }  @article{Heikes2002,  abstract = {[1] Methanol is a biogeochemically active compound and a significant component of the volatile organic carbon in the atmosphere. It influences background tropospheric photochemistry and may serve as a tracer for biogenic emissions. The mass of methanol in the atmospheric reservoir, the annual mass flux of methanol from sources to sinks, and the estimated atmospheric lifetime of methanol in the free troposphere, marine boundary layer, continental boundary layer, and in-cloud, are evaluated. The atmosphere contains approximately 4 Tg (terragrams, 10(12) g) of methanol. Estimates of global methanol sources and sinks total 340 and 270 Tg methanol yr(-1), respectively, and are in balance given their estimated precision. Sink terms were evaluated using observed methanol distributions; the total loss is approximately a factor of 5 larger than prior estimates. The adopted source is a factor of 3 larger than its prior estimate. Recent net flux observations and the magnitude of the estimated sink suggest biogenic methanol emissions to be near their current estimated upper limit, >280 Tg methanol yr(-1), and this value was adopted. The methanol source will be larger with the inclusion of an argued for oceanic gross emission of 30 Tg methanol yr(-1), but a major uncertainty concerns whether the oceans are a major net sink or source of methanol, an issue which will not be resolved without new measurements. Other large uncertainties are the estimates of primary biogenic emissions and gas surface deposition. The first loss estimates of methanol by in-cloud chemistry and precipitation are presented. They are approximately equal at 10 Tg methanol yr(-1), each. These are small in comparison to the surface loss and gas phase photochemical loss estimated here but would be significant additional losses in earlier budgets. Surface exchange processes dominate the atmospheric budget of methanol and its distribution. The atmospheric deposition of methanol and the argued for methanol produced in the upper ocean are ubiquitous sources of C-1 substrate capable of sustaining methylotrophic organisms throughout the surface ocean.},  author = {Heikes, Brian G.},  doi = {10.1029/2002GB001895},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Atmospheric methanol budget and ocean implication.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0886-6236},  issn = {0886-6236},  journal = {Global Biogeochemical Cycles},  keywords = {doi:10.1029/2002GB001895,http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002GB001895,methanol},  mendeley-tags = {methanol},  number = {4},  pages = {1--13},  title = {{Atmospheric methanol budget and ocean implication}},  volume = {16},  year = {2002}  }  @incollection{Griffiths2007,  author = {Griffiths, P R and {De Haseth}, J A},  booktitle = {Fourier transform infrared spectrometry},  keywords = {FTS},  mendeley-tags = {FTS},  pages = {1--18},  title = {{Introduction to vibrational spectroscopy}},  year = {2007}  }  @article{Stavrakou2009,  abstract = {Formaldehyde columns retrieved from the Scanning Imaging Absorption$\backslash$nSpectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography/Chemistry (SCIAMACHY)$\backslash$ninstrument on-board ENVISAT satellite through 2003 to 2006 are used as$\backslash$ntop-down constraints to derive updated global biogenic and biomass$\backslash$nburning flux estimates for the non-methane volatile organic compounds$\backslash$n(NMVOCs) precursors of formaldehyde. Our interest is centered over$\backslash$nregions experiencing strong emissions, and hence exhibiting a high$\backslash$nsignal-to-noise ratio and lower measurement uncertainties. The$\backslash$nformaldehyde dataset used in this study has been recently made available$\backslash$nto the community and complements the long record of formaldehyde$\backslash$nmeasurements from the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME). We use$\backslash$nthe IMAGESv2 global chemistry-transport model driven by the Global Fire$\backslash$nEmissions Database (GFED) version 1 or 2 for biomass burning, and from$\backslash$nthe newly developed MEGAN-ECMWF isoprene emission database. The adjoint$\backslash$nof the model is implemented in a grid-based framework within which$\backslash$nemission fluxes are derived at the model resolution, together with a$\backslash$ndifferentiation of the sources in a grid cell. Two inversion studies are$\backslash$nconducted using either the GFEDv1 or GFEDv2 as a priori for the$\backslash$npyrogenic fluxes. Although on the global scale the inferred emissions$\backslash$nfrom the two categories exhibit only weak deviations from the$\backslash$ncorresponding a priori estimates, the regional updates often present$\backslash$nlarge departures from their a priori values. The posterior isoprene$\backslash$nemissions over North America, amounting to about 34 Tg C/yr, are$\backslash$nestimated to be on average by 25\% lower than the a priori over$\backslash$n2003-2006, whereas a strong increase (55\%) is deduced over the south$\backslash$nAfrican continent, the optimized emission being estimated at 57 Tg C/yr.$\backslash$nOver Indonesia the biogenic emissions appear to be overestimated by$\backslash$n20-30\%, whereas over Indochina and the Amazon basin during the wet$\backslash$nseason the a priori inventory captures both the seasonality and the$\backslash$nmagnitude of the observed columns. Although neither biomass burning$\backslash$ninventory seems to be consistent with the data over all regions,$\backslash$npyrogenic estimates inferred from the two inversions are reasonably$\backslash$nsimilar, despite their a priori deviations. A number of sensitivity$\backslash$nexperiments are conducted in order to assess the impact of uncertainties$\backslash$nrelated to the inversion setup and the chemical mechanism. Whereas$\backslash$nchanges in the background error covariance matrix have only a limited$\backslash$nimpact on the posterior fluxes, the use of an alternative isoprene$\backslash$nmechanism characterized by lower HCHO yields (the GEOS-Chem mechanism)$\backslash$nincreases the posterior isoprene source estimate by 11\% over northern$\backslash$nAmerica, and by up to 40\% in tropical regions.},  author = {Stavrakou, T. and M\"{u}ller, J.-F. and {De Smedt}, I. and {Van Roozendael}, M. and van der Werf, G. R. and Giglio, L. and Guenther, A.},  doi = {10.5194/acpd-9-4609-2009},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Global emissions of non-methane hydrocarbons deduced from SCIAMACHY formaldehyde columns through 2003–2006.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {1680-7316},  issn = {1680-7375},  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions},  keywords = {formaldehyde},  mendeley-tags = {formaldehyde},  pages = {4609--4651},  title = {{Global emissions of non-methane hydrocarbons deduced from SCIAMACHY formaldehyde columns through 2003-2006}},  volume = {9},  year = {2009}  }  @article{Tie2003,  abstract = {[1] We use a global chemical transport model (MOZART-2) to estimate the effects of surface emissions of methanol on tropospheric oxidants. The importance of methanol in tropospheric chemistry is two fold. First, methanol has a relatively large surface emission with an estimated global emission of 70 to 350 Tg methanol/year. The estimated methanol flux is comparable to other major hydrocarbon surface emissions such as isoprene and total monoterpenes, but the chemical lifetime of methanol is several days (in the boundary layer) to a few weeks (in the upper troposphere), which is much longer than the chemical lifetime of isoprene or monoterpenes (For example, the chemical lifetime of isoprene is about 2 hours). With a surface emission of 104 to 312 Tg methanol/year ( encompasses estimated uncertainty in methanol emissions), the calculation shows that on average, the inclusion of methanol emission produces approximately 1-2\% increase in O-3, 1-3\% decrease in OH, 3-5\% increase in HO2, and 3-9\% increase in CH2O globally. The maximum perturbation to the oxidants occurs in the tropical upper troposphere. However, the uncertainty associated with current methanol emission estimates produces significantly different model predictions of tropospheric oxidant distributions.},  author = {Tie, Xuexi and Guenther, Alex and Holland, Elisabeth},  doi = {10.1029/2003GL017167},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Biogenic methanol and its impacts on tropospheric oxidants.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {0094-8276},  issn = {0094-8276},  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},  keywords = {doi:10.1029/2003GL017167,http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003GL017167,methanol},  mendeley-tags = {methanol},  number = {17},  pages = {3--6},  title = {{Biogenic methanol and its impacts on tropospheric oxidants}},  volume = {30},  year = {2003}  }  @article{Rinsland1998,  author = {Rinsland, Curtis P and Jones, Nicholas B and Connor, Brian J and Logan, Jennifer a and Pougatchev, Nikita S and Goldman, Aaron and Murcray, Frank J and Stephen, Thomas M and Pine, Alan S and Zander, Rodolphe and Mahieu, Emmanuel and Demoulin, Philippe},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Northern and southern hemisphere ground-based infrared spectroscopic measurements of tropospheric carbon monoxide and ethane.pdf:pdf},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {Lauder,doi:10.1029/9,http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/98JD02515},  mendeley-tags = {Lauder},  pages = {28197--28217},  title = {{Northern and southern hemisphere ground-based infrared spectroscopic measurements of tropospheric carbon monoxide and ethane}},  volume = {103},  year = {1998}  }  @phdthesis{Kent2011,  author = {Kent, Penelope},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Penny Kent Honours Thesis - Soil Nox.pdf:pdf},  keywords = {GEOS-Chem},  mendeley-tags = {GEOS-Chem},  school = {University of Wollongong},  title = {{Nitrogen from the Australia desert: a globally significant intermittent source of soil NOx?}},  year = {2011}  }  @article{Holloway2000,  author = {Holloway, Tracey and Levy, Hiram and Kasibhatla, Prasad},  doi = {10.1029/1999JD901173},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Global distribution of carbon monoxide.pdf:pdf},  issn = {0148-0227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {carbon monoxide,doi:10.1029/1999JD901173,http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/1999JD901173},  mendeley-tags = {carbon monoxide},  pages = {12123--12147},  title = {{Global distribution of carbon monoxide}},  volume = {105},  year = {2000}  }  @article{Hough1991,  abstract = {A latitudinally averaged two-dimensional model has been used to study the distributions, budgets, and trends of trace gases in the atmosphere from pole to pole and from the surface to 24 km. The chemical mechanism used contains 56 chemical species, including 12 hydrocarbons and 125 chemical and photochemical reactions, as well as wet removal processes and dry deposition. Apart from the stratospheric sources of ozone and nitrogen oxides the model chemistry is driven completely by the time-dependent photolytic processes and the emission of 17 chemical species distributed according to 10 different source categories. Each source category is parameterized as a function of latitude and time of the year. The model results are generally in good agreement with observations, and the model reproduces the observed temporal and spatial variation in the mixing ratios of methane, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and ozone. The global average concentration of the hydroxyl radical in the troposphere is 8.3 x 10(5) molecules cm-3, in agreement with recent calculations based on budgets and trends for CH3CCl3. Model budgets for NO(x), CO, CH4, H2 and O3 are presented. These show that although the stratospheric source and dry deposition terms for ozone almost balance, the global annual turnover of ozone below 24 km, excluding the O3/NO/NO2 null cycle, is four times greater than the stratospheric source strength. These budgets also suggest that the observed increase in the mixing ratio of methane may be due not only to an increasing source strength but also to a downward perturbation in the abundance of the hydroxyl radical.},  author = {Hough, Adrian M.},  doi = {10.1029/90JD01327},  file = {:Users/kaitlynlieschke/Documents/Uni/2015 Honours/Papers/Development of a Two-Dimensional Global Tropospheric Model' Model Chemistry.pdf:pdf},  isbn = {2169-897X},  issn = {0148-0227},  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},  keywords = {2D model,PAN,carbon monoxide,hydrocarbons,hydroxyl radical,methane,nitric acid,nitrous oxides,ozone,peroxide,water vapor},  mendeley-tags = {2D model,PAN,carbon monoxide,hydrocarbons,hydroxyl radical,methane,nitric acid,nitrous oxides,ozone,peroxide,water vapor},  pages = {7325--7362},  title = {{Development of a two-dimensional global tropospheric model: Model chemistry}},  volume = {96},  year = {1991}  }