Fig. 1 Picture of turion structure. The turion of P. crispus is a vegetative propagule with a propeller shape. The metamorphosed stem and metamorphosed leaf/scale leaf are the modules of condensed apical shoots. An axillary bud generates on the metamorphosed stem between two scale leaves. Young seedlings sprout from the axillary buds

Fig. 2 Mean daytime water temperature throughout the experimental period. The mean daytime water temperature was approximately 2–5.8 ℃ higher under warming condition than under normal condition

Fig. 3 Variation in (A) turion number, (B) turion biomass, (C) percentage of oligophyllous turions and (D) percentage of pleiophyllous turions under different warming conditions for the four populations from different geographic sources

Fig. 4 Variation in (A) fruit number and (B) fruit biomass under different warming conditions for the four populations from different geographic sources