Figure 6. The role of affinity factors like vaccine and recurrence on the effect of SARS-CoV-2.
The present work provides a quantum mechanical approach to variations in the Covid-19 effect. Any person who shows a different path of variation in the Covid-19 effect has either got another underlying disease that is not diagnosed yet or has another affinity factor that is yet to be detected. It is also worth noting that we have not looked into the effect of a time interval between two attacks in the event of multiple SARS-CoV-2 attacks. In the present work, we have used time-independent quantum perturbation theory. To account for the time interval between two attacks, time-dependent quantum perturbation theory must be considered.
Another important fact and information this model provides is an approach to underlying disease, which is either not detected, or ignored during Covid-19 patients’ studies. Assume that a patient reports one pre-existing disease when affected by Covid-19 then the first-order energy perturbation term should be applied to the patient. If it is found that the effect of Covid-19 is severe than this model predicts then that indicates that the patient has a second underlying disease as well which is either unreported or ignored. Therefore, the quantum perturbation model of Covid-19 can also predict a hidden underlying disease, which can affect the body’s immunity to Covid-19.
CONCLUSION
To enter human cells, SARS-CoV-2 uses the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. The virus replicates inside the cell by releasing its single-strand RNA genome into the cytoplasmic compartment. B cells initiate an early response by generating anti-SARS-CoV-2 specific IgA, IgG, and IgM antibodies. The specificity of these antibodies increases with reinfection, immunization, and exposure to new variants. The antibody maturation cycle is repeated indefinitely, with each cycle producing new and higher affinity antibodies. When a larger number of people are re-infected or vaccinated and survive, herd immunity develops.  Age and pre-existing conditions have an impact on this process as well. Being a new pandemic with very little understood, It is very important to put it in a standard model based on universal ideas and scope. Quantum Perturbation Theory is used in the present work to successfully model the effect of SARS-CoV-2 and its variation as a function of various factors. Images of Covid-19 patients at various stages are included. The Quantum Modelling provides a strong base and interprets mathematically why the effect of Covid-19 does not change linearly and follows exponential variation with each factor developing affinity against the virus. The Quantum Model will open a unique way of understanding the effect, prevention, and control of pandemic diseases.
Acknowledgment: We are very thankful to Dr. Muhammad Kamal, In Charge Medical Officer, General Hospital, Rustam, Mardan, Pakistan, for providing lungs images of healthy adults and Covid-19 patients he treated in his hospital.
Conflict of Interest Statement: All authors declare no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES
Baric, R.S. (2020) Emergence of a Highly Fit SARS-CoV-2 Variant. N Engl J Med., 383(27),
2684-2686.
Lv, M., Luo, X., Estill, J., Liu, Y., & Ren, M. (2020) Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): a scoping
review. Euro Surveill., 25(15), 2000125.
Pillalamarri N., Abdullah, R. G., Khan, L., Ullah, A., Jonnakuti, S., & Ullah, M. (2021) Exploring
The utility of extracellular vesicles in ameliorating viral infection-associated inflammation, cytokine storm and tissue damage. Transl Oncol., 14(7), 101095.
Li, F. (2016) Structure, Function, and Evolution of Coronavirus Spike Proteins., Annu Rev Virol.,
3(1), 237-261.
Khan. L., Khaliq, N.U., Ullah, A., Rafiq, N., & Ullah, M. (2020) COVID-19 pandemic:
Mechanistic approaches and gender vulnerabilities. Saudi Pharm J., 28(12), 1874-1876.
Chatterjee, A,N., Basir, F.A., Almuqrin, M.A., Mondal, J., & Khan, I. (2021) SARS-CoV-2
infection with lytic and non-lytic immune responses: A fractional order optimal control theoretical study. Results in Physics, 2021, 104260.
Singhal, T. (2020) A Review of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19). Indian J Pediatr., 87(4),
281-286.
Shereen, M,A., Khan, S., Kazmi, A., Bashir, N., & Siddique, R. (2020) COVID-19 infection:
Origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res., 24, 91-98.
Li, N., Hui, H., Bray, B., Gonzalez, G.M., & Zeller, M. (2021) METTL3 regulates viral m6A RNA
modification and host cell innate immune responses during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Cell Rep., 35(6), 109091.
Byambasuren, O., Cardona, M., Bell, K., Clark, J., McLaws, M. L., & Glasziou, P. (2020)
Estimating the extent of asymptomatic COVID-19 and its potential for community transmission: systematic review and meta-analysis. Official Journal of the Association of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Disease Canada, 5(4), 223-234.
Ullah, M., Kodam, S.P., Mu, Q., & Akbar, A. (2021) Microbubbles versus extracellular vesicles
as therapeutic cargo for targeting drug delivery. ACS Nano, 15(3), 3612-3620.
Vardhana, S.A., & Wolchok, J.D. (2020) The many faces of the anti-COVID immune response. J.
Exp Med., 217(6), e20200678.
Yazdanpanah, F., Hamblin, M.R., & Rezaei, N. (2020) The immune system and COVID-19:
Friend or foe? Life Sci., 256, 117900.
Gasteiger, G., D’Osualdo, A., Schubert, D.A., Weber, A., Bruscia, E.M., & Hartl D. (2017)
Cellular Innate Immunity: An Old Game with New Players. J Innate Immun., 9(2), 111-125.
Bi, Q. et al. (2020) Correction to Lancet Infectious Diseases 2020; published online April 27.
Lancet Infect. Dis., 20(7), e148. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30287-5.
Parry, J. (2020) Hong Kong scientists report first confirmed case of reinfection. BMJ, 370, m3340.
Voloch, C.M., da Silva, F.R., Jr., de Almeida, L.G.P., Cardoso, C.C., & Brustolini, O.J. (2021)
Genomic characterization of a novel SARS-CoV-2 lineage from Rio de Janeiro. Brazil. J Virol., 95(10), e00119-21.
Sabino, E.C., Buss, L.F., Carvalho, M.P.S., Prete, C.A., Jr., & Crispim, M.A.E. (2021) Resurgence
of COVID-19 in Manaus, Brazil, despite high seroprevalence. Lancet, 397(10273), 452-455.
Sanyaolu, A., Okorie, C., Marinkovic, A., Patidar, R., Younis, K., & Desai, P. (2020) Comorbidity
and its impact on patients with COVID-19. SN Compr Clin Med., 2020, 1–8.
Zheng, Z., Peng, F., Zhao, J., & Liu, H. (2020) Risk factors of critical & mortal COVID-19 cases:
A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. J Infect., 81(2), e16-e25.
Mao, R., Liang, J., Shen, J., Ghosh, S., Zhu, L.R., Yang, H., Wu, K.C., & Chen, M.H. (2020)
Chinese Society of Ibd CEIBDU, Chinese IBDQCECC: Implications of COVID-19 for patients with pre-existing digestive diseases. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol, 5(5), 425-427.
Emami, A., Javanmardi, F., Pirbonyeh, N., & Akbari, A. (2020) Prevalence of Underlying
Diseases in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Arch Acad Emerg Med., 8(1), e35.
Shi, S., Qin, M., Cai, Y., Liu, T., & Shen, B. (2020) Characteristics and clinical significance of
myocardial injury in patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019. Eur Heart J., 41(22), 2070-2079.
Dai, M., Liu, D., Liu, M., Zhou, F., & Li, G. (2020) Patients with Cancer Appear More Vulnerable
to SARS-CoV-2: A Multicenter Study during the COVID-19 Outbreak. Cancer Discov., 10(6), 783-791.
Shi, S., Qin, M., Shen, B., Cai, Y., & Liu, T. (2020) Association of Cardiac Injury With Mortality
in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. JAMA Cardiol., 5(7), 802-810.
Williamson, E.J., Walker, A.J., Bhaskaran, K., Bacon, S., & Bates, C. (2020) Factors associated
with COVID-19-related death using OpenSAFELY. Nature, 584(7821), 430-436.
Sud, A., Jones, M.E., Broggio, J., Loveday, C., & Torr, B. (2020) Collateral damage: the impact
on outcomes from cancer surgery of the COVID-19 pandemic. Ann Oncol., 31(8), 1065-1074.
Tillett, R.L., Sevinsky, J.R., Hartley, P.D., Kerwin, H., & Crawford, N. (2021) Genomic evidence
for reinfection with SARS-CoV-2: a case study. Lancet Infect Dis., 21(1), 52-58.
Azam, M., Sulistiana, R., Ratnawati, M., Fibriana, A.I., Bahrudin, U., Widyaningrum, D., &
Aljunid, S.M.. (2020) Recurrent SARS-CoV-2 RNA positivity after COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep., 10(1), 20692.
Hall, V.J., Foulkes, S., Charlett, A., Atti, A., & Monk, E.J.M. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 infection rates
of antibody-positive compared with antibody-negative health-care workers in England: a large, multicentre, prospective cohort study (SIREN). Lancet, 397(10283), 1459-1469.
Bonifacio, L.P., Pereira, A.P.S., Araujo, D., Balbao, V., Fonseca, B., Passos, A.D.C., & Rodrigues,
B.F. (2020) Are SARS-CoV-2 reinfection and Covid-19 recurrence possible? a case report from Brazil. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop., 53, e20200619.
Gousseff, M., Penot, P., Gallay, L., Batisse, D., & Benech, N. (2020) Clinical recurrences of
COVID-19 symptoms after recovery: Viral relapse, reinfection, or inflammatory rebound? J Infect., 81(5), 816-846.
Jiang, M., Li, Y., Han, M., Wang, Z., Zhang, Y., & Du, X. (2020) Recurrent PCR positivity after
hospital discharge of people with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). J Infect., 81(1), 147-178.
Boechat, J.L., Chora, I., Morais, A., Delgado, L. (2021) The immune response to SARS-CoV-2
and COVID-19 immunopathology - Current perspectives. Pulmonology, S2531-0437 (21), 00084-00092.
Vetter, P.,  Eberhardt, C.S., Meyer, B.,  Murillo, P.A.M., & Torriani, G. (2020) Daily Viral
Kinetics and Innate and Adaptive Immune Response Assessment in COVID-19: a Case Series. mSphere, 5-6, e00827-20.
Sette, A., & Shane, C. (2021) Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Cell, 184(4),
861-880.
Viau, M., & Moncef, Z. (2005) B-lymphocytes, innate immunity, and autoimmunity Clinical
immunology, 114 (1), 17-26.
Callender, L.A., Curran, M., Bates, S.M., Mairesse, M., Weigand, J., & Bettsm C,J. (2020) The
Impact of Pre-existing Comorbidities and Therapeutic Interventions on COVID-19. Frontiers in immunology, 11, 1991.
Gazumyan, A., Bothmer, A., Klein, I.A., Nussenzweig, M.C., McBride, K.M. (2012) Activation-
induced cytidine deaminase in antibody diversification and chromosome translocation. Adv. Cancer Res., 113, 167-190.
Kumar, R., DiMenna, L.J., Chaudhuri, J., Evans, T. (2014) Biological function of activation-
induced cytidine deaminase (AID). Biomed. J., 37(5), 269-283.
Griffith, D. J. (1994) Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall,
New Jersey, USA, pp. 78 – 82.
Liboff, R. L. (2002) Introductory Quantum Mechanics, 4th Edition, Addison Wisely Publishing,
California, USA, pp. 78 – 86.
Reed, B. C. (2007) Quantum Mechanics, Quantum Mechanics, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, USA,
pp. 70 – 84.