Introduction
Intelligence in 21st century has re-emerged as an
important field (Scott & Jackson, 2004). People now are interested to
know about intelligence and intelligence officers due to new open world.
Secrecy remained the prime feature of the intelligence (Aldrich, 2004)
therefore, so far intelligence is a kind of mysterious field (Davidson
& Downing, 2000: LeDoux, 1998). However, now ours are in a changing
situation (Phythian, 2009) because, connected world is different.
Many researchers have defined intelligence. According to a known
definition intelligence is “information about things foreign people,
places, things and events needed by the Government for the conduct of
its functions.” (Warner, 2002). Another definition defines intelligence
as it “is a function embedded in the organizational structures of
government agencies and departments at the federal, state and local
level. (Corkill, Cunow, Ashton & East, 2015). Bruce & George, (2015)
defined the construct as; “Intelligence is a corporate capability to
forecast change in time to do something about it. The capability
involves foresight and insight, and is intended to identify impending
change which may be positive, representing opportunity or negative,
representing threat”. Wheaton & Beerbower, (2006) defined intelligence
in two parts; to them “the term “intelligence” includes foreign
intelligence and counterintelligence. (2) The term “foreign
intelligence” means information relating to the capabilities,
intentions, or activities of foreign governments or elements thereof,
foreign organizations, or foreign persons. (3) The term
“counterintelligence” means information gathered and activities
conducted to protect against espionage, other intelligence activities,
sabotage, or assassinations conducted by or on behalf of foreign
governments or elements thereof, foreign organizations, or foreign
persons.” American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) defined
intelligence as, “Intelligence is the official, secret collection and
processing of information on foreign countries to aid in formulating and
implementing foreign policy, and the conduct of covert activities abroad
to facilitate the implementation of foreign policy” (Random, 1958).
Intelligence officers are the officers those perform intelligence
related duties. Various authors presented the description of these
duties (Hennessy, 2002: Wilensky, 2015: Herman, 1996: Geer, 2014).
Usually intelligence officers collect, compile, analyze information
(intelligence) as assigned and required by the employing organization.
To perform duties these officers collect, communication intelligence,
financial intelligence, human intelligence (PANAJOTU, KOSZTASZ, 2010)
and other kind of intelligence like imagery intelligence, measurement
and signature intelligence, open source intelligence and technical
intelligence.
There are various governmental as well as private organizations those
collect intelligence. A few somewhat more known governmental
intelligence agencies are,
Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA),
Secret
Intelligence Service (MI6),
Australian
Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS)
,Federal
Bureau of Investigation (FBI),
Security Service (MI5)
,Australian
Security Intelligence Organization (ASIO),Inter Services Intelligence
(ISI), Research and Analysis Wing (RAW),Institute for Intelligence and
Special Operations (MOSAD) and Committee for State Security (KGB).
Intelligence officers perform various kinds of duties in their
organizations some of the known duties are field officer (Kalitka,
1997), case officers, collectors, operations officers,
analysts,
counterintelligence officers, intelligence agents (Jones, 2010), the
intelligence agents could be source agent, access agent, agent
provocateur, rogue agent and double agent.
Intelligence duties, due to the nature of job demands, demand some
additional personality characteristics, skills and features from
intelligence officers deployed in various positions (Corkill, Cunow,
Ashton & East, 2015). Intelligence officers are not exceptional human
beings and maintain healthy personalities as described generally for a
healthy personality in the light of known personality theorists “Gordon
Allport, Carl Rogers, Erich Fromm, Abraham Maslow, Carl Jung, Viktor
Frankl, and Fritz Perls” (Kumthekar, 2017). However, due to the nature
of the job intelligence officers Corkill, Cunow, Ashton & East, (2015)
have highlighted some additional features those facilitate intelligence
officers in their job situations and environments. These features one by
one and the relevant sources where additional research is available
about these features is as follows: first feature is, integrity (Beebe,
2005: Dobson & Singer, 2005: Lee, Ashton & de Vries ,2005: Ones &
Viswesvaran, 1998), drive (Porath & Bateman, 2006:DeGeest & Brown,
2011), initiative (Erik Erikson, 1959), commitment(Porter, Steers,
Mowday & Boulian, 1974: Gardner & Moore, 2007)., respect(Dillon, 2003:
Darwall, 1977: Evans & Davis, 2005), adaptability(Guan, Deng, Sun,
Wang, Cai, Ye, & Li, 2013: Guan, Guo, Bond, Cai, Zhou, Xu,… & Wang,
2014a), fairness (Bjørnskov, Dreher, Fischer & Schnellenbach, 2009:
Frey & Osterloh, 2001), confidence(Hays, Thomas, Maynard & Bawden,
2009: Yi & La, 2003: Weber & Brewer, 2008: Compte & Postlewaite,
2004: Norman & Hyland, 2003) , self-discipline(Dalton & Crosby, 2011:
Duckworth, Grant, Loew, Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2011: De Klerk & Rens,
2003), innovation(Leonard–Barton, 1991: Rodima-Taylor, Olwig &
Chhetri, 2012: Barbier & Homer-Dixon, 1996), flexibility (Zaccaro,
Gilbert, Thor & Mumford, 1991), procedures following (Blader & Tyler,
2003), productiveness (Fromm, 2003: Humm, 1942), honesty (Ashton, Lee &
Son, 2000: Chirumbolo, 2015), professional standards (Ingvarson, 1998:
Schmidt & Wolfe, 1980), creativity (Kaufman & Plucker, 2011: Heunks,
1998), attention to detail (Tepeci, 2005: Hansen, 2016) , willingness
and resilience (MacIntyre, Babin & Clément, 1999: Yu, Li & Gou, 2011:
Shi, Liu, Wang & Wang, 2015: Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2015).
Many researchers those include Clauser, (2008), Clauser & Weir (1976),
Wolfberg, (2003), Katter et al., (1979) ,Bullard, Griss, Greene &
Gekker, (2013), Wing (2000), Schneider, (1995), Evans & Kebbell (2011),
Corkill, (UnPub) ,Schneider, (1995), Allen (2008), and Fischl &
Gilbert, (1983), Quarmby & Young (2010) in (Corkill, Cunow, Ashton &
East, 2015) have reflected many situations and environments in which the
intelligence officers perform their duties. These situations in most of
the cases are national security situations, the military related
situations, in law enforcement, in defense situations and in governance
and compliance environments. A few other researchers’ have presented
these situation and intelligence officer characteristics with another
angle (Podbregar, Iztok Hribar, Gašper and Ivanuša, 2015).
Wilder (2017) in his recommendations about the qualities necessary for
espionage has suggested a few personality aspects those the authors
feels support espionage. These to him include, dysfunctions in the
personality of the person who is to be recruited as an agent, a state of
crisis and an ease of opportunity for recruited for spying. He suggested
that following personality features suits more for espionage,
psychopathic, immature and a narcissist personality types to him prove
to be a better choice for espionage. Some other authors like Winkler
(2009) has pointed out that the role of information and understanding of
economic, political, intelligence and military dimensions essential for
better handling of agents. Steen (2015) highlighted the role of
propaganda that influences various war situations to get desired
out-putt from agents and Fitness (2001) highlighting the importance of
betrayal in intelligence relationships and other relationships.
Analysis expertise demand in jobs is now increasing in the world and it
is related with intelligence jobs (Gajić, Jeremić & Stefanović, 2017:
Vandepeer, 2016). There are many types of analysis are available like
statistical analysis, structured analysis, quantitative empirical
analysis and quasi-quantitative analysis (Pherson, 2013). To him
following five habits could help everybody who is interested in analysis
to improve analysis.
If you are good thinker and you have develop the insight that when is
the time to challenge your, key assumptions’, you have acquired an
important habit for better analysis.
Always consider, ‘alternative hypothesis’ in the light of ‘alternative
explanations’ for every event, even about null hypothesis. Always
consider ‘deception’ hypothesis where you feel that is applicable.
Search ‘inconsistencies in the data, and find out sufficient
justification to quickly discard, candidate hypothesis in that context.
Remained focused on ‘key drivers’ while explaining that what occurred
and what is likely to happen?
Fully grasp the overarching context within which the analysis is done
but also anticipate what the customer needs are?
The discipline of psychology is helping the new emerging needs of the
day by day growing and spreading the complex spectrum of training
including spy training; because now everything is available on various
search engines like maps , personal data and exact location,
installations, own strengths and weakness, literature and history, even
attitudes and culture, personal general reactions of all known or less
known people and above all new world is now a globally connected world
where everything now is an open secret but still spying, espionage,
sabotage, surveillance and all activities of old times are being
practiced in present day modernity? With the appropriate us of
psychology not only one can address all intelligence related challenges
at micro level but also can perform all assigned jobs with more
capabilities. In the modern psychology numerous context studies are
available. Some to refer are experiments related with facial expressions
(Sugden, Mohamed‐Ali &Moulson, 2014), studies about complex motor
actions (Moreau, Morrison & Conway, 2015), minimizing accidental
behavior (Gantt & Gantt, 2012), body posture clues (McAuliff&
Duckworth, 2010), non-verbal clues (Sebanz&Shiffrar, 2009).
Usually the people related with intelligence those include officers,
trainers and people related with top commend level put more efforts to
understand the field of intelligence, whereas psychology is a science
that in direct manner helps the people working in all fields of life to
understand the life of life, the author therefore has suggested a few
sources with their purpose of use for beginners and advance readers
those are eager to know about the knowledge of psychology related with
their fields including intelligence. What is psychology (Passer &
Smith, 2004: Carlson, Heth, Miller, Donahoe& Martin, 2009: Kantor,
1924) What is memory (Ekman, 1959) What is perception (Dember, 1960)
What is learning (Hilgard& Bower, 1966: Mowrer, 1960) What is motive
and motivation (Atkinson, 1964) What is an attitudes (Allport, 1933:
Eagly&Chaiken, 1993) What are the neural basis of behavior
(Heiligenberg, 1991) Who was Sigmund Freud (Freud, 1971) What is
personality (Murray &Kluckhohn, 1948) Psychodynamic models of
personality (Bornstein, Denckla& Chung, 2012) The role of meanings in
life and personality (Steger, Kashdan, Sullivan & Lorentz, 2008) Human
strengths (Aspinwall& Staudinger, 2003: Savickas, 2003) Human
strengths, weaknesses (McGrath, Howard & Baker, 2015) What is
industrial psychology (Viteles& Brief, 1932) Human strengths,
management (Glaser, 2006) What is crime and psychology of crime
(Abrahamsen, 1960: Hollin, 2013) What is investigative psychology
(Canter&Youngs, 2009: Canter, 2010a)? What is juvenile delinquency
(Shaw & McKay, 1942: Agnew &Brezina, 2012) radicalization and
de-radicalization (Horgan, 2008: Doosje et al 2016) What is cognitive
interviewing (Geiselman& Padilla, 1988: Beatty & Willis, 2007) and how
it works, how to investigate high suspects (Moore, 2014: Roman, 2008:
Mann, Vrij& Bull, 2002), how to detect lying during investigative
interviews (Granhag&Hartwig, 2008) What to do with false confession
(Davis & Leo, 2014: Vrij, Meissner&Kassin, 2015: Lassiter &Meissner,
2010) What is detention how detention affects an individual (Power
&Beveridge, 1990: Tyson, 1983: Levin, 1988) What is criminal and
offender rehabilitation (Rotman, 1990: National Research Council,1981:
McGuire, 2003) What is military (Driskell& Olmstead, 1989: Gal
&Mangelsdorff, 1991)naval (Darley, 1957: Cram, 2012) and aviation
psychology (Tsang &Vidulich, 2002: Johnston & McDonald, 2017) What is
fatigue (MacIntosh&Rassier, 2002: Muscio, 1921: Krupp & Christodoulou,
2001)stress (Janis, 1958:Selye, 1956), threshold (Silverman, 2013) What
is Yerkes Dodosson Law (Broadhurst, 1957: Cohen, 2011) What is effect
(Zeigarnik, 1927: Zeigarnik, 1938a: Schiffman&Greist-Bousquet, 1992)
What is attribution& theory (Kelley, 1967), What is cognitive
dissonance (Festinger, 1962: Festinger, 1962a).