Figure 1 Overview of sites on the slopes of Mauna Loa on the Big Island of Hawaii. We sampled a total of 13 kīpuka sites, each in a paired fashion with a central and an edge site (dark blue and light blue, respectively). In addition, we sampled four sites on barren lava in the matrix connecting kīpuka. As a control to the kīpuka sites, we sampled at sites in two continuous forests along the western and eastern slopes of Mauna Loa (Stainback and Kona Hema, respectively).