2.1. Study area
The study area (about 670 km2) is in the north-western Spain (42º 20’ N, 8º 47’ W) (Supplementary Figure S1 ). It presents a mild humid-oceanic climate, with annual average precipitation of 1402 mm and annual average temperature of 14.2°C (Rodríguez-Lado et al . 2018).
The landscape is mountainous with an average height of 213 m.s.n.m (0–646 m.s.n.m) and interspersed valleys and plains, all conforming a heterogeneous mosaic of forest patches and farms (Rebollo et al . 2017). The 50.9% of all the study area is covered by patches of forest masses, mainly occupying the middle and upper parts of the slopes. These forest patches are dominated by non-native eucalyptus plantations (Eucalyptus globulus Labill., 1800) but also there are mixed patches with native species such as the oak (Quercus robur L.) or the maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait., 1789).