Model validation cohorts
A total of 1,304 patients with liver cirrhosis were enrolled in the study. In the international multicenter cross-sectional HVPG cohort, patients were included from China, Croatia, Singapore, and Japan between August 2021 and November 2022. Moreover, in the international multicenter longitudinal follow-up cohort, patients were included in China, Japan, Southern Korea, Egypt, and Singapore between January 2009 and August 2020. Besides, patients under carvedilol treatment based on clinical manifestation were recruited from China between January 2018 and October 2020.