1.3 First and Second Language Comprehension with Mental imagery
Both first (L1) and second (L2) languages have a complex relationship
with mental imagery. Imagery has been observed to increase emotional
responses, reading comprehension, and retention in L1 reading through
vividness. Though studies between L2 reading and mental imagery
are limited, some show that imagery training can benefit L2
comprehension and immersion.
Numerous studies indicate that mental imagery and L1 reading
comprehension have an intricate relationship. Yousef Atoum and Reziq
(2018) found that mental imagery ability predicted reading comprehension
among 7th-grade students. The authors correlated reading comprehension
scores through various levels (literal, gross, critical, analytical, and
overall) with the Sheveland scale, a mental imagery scale spanning seven
dimensions (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, gustatory, olfactory,
movement, and feelings). Their results indicated that visual mental
imagery could predict 34.8% of reading comprehension. They conclude
that mental imagery assists students in creating scenarios that help
them understand the overall theme and meaning of the text. The authors
also claim that mental imagery deepens the semantic understanding of the
word. They state that imagining ”affects the process of reading
comprehension related to the ability to absorb texts and to understand
the different relationships between events” (YOUSEF ATOUM; REZIQ, 2018).
They also argue for the importance of visualization to active processes
such as analyzing, forming criticisms, and conclusions.
Boerma and colleagues (2016) conducted a study that showed that when
reading a story in L1 where the narrative alternates between text and
pictures, children who scored higher on mental imagery skills tended to
score higher on reading comprehension tasks than children with lower
mental imagery scores. They suggested that children skilled at using
mental imagery could build mental models to ”connect pictures and
words.” This connection improved their understanding and allowed them
to seamlessly alternate between pictures and stories.
As other studies, such as Kocaarslan (2016), found relationships between
levels of mental imagery and L1 reading comprehension, it is crucial to
consider whether vividness of mental imagery can improve reading
comprehension scores.
For L2 reading and mental imagery, Wang and colleagues have found that
individuals learning English as a foreign language (EFL) can improve
reading comprehension through ”constrained imagery strategy training”
(WANG et al ., 2015). Constrained imagery is strictly imagining
what is written or described, while non-constrained imagery allows for
freedom of imagery. They tested three conditions for EFL students:
control, non-constrained, and constrained training. The non-constrained
training utilized a standard imagery treatment, while the constrained
training used the standard imagery treatment and guidance to use
constrained imagery. This guidance encouraged readers to reimagine the
scenario if they did not accurately imagine the scene. The researchers
found that the group with the constrained training had the highest
reading comprehension performance.
Based on the L1 and L2 reading studies, mental imagery seems to be
relied upon for understanding and recalling events. The more explicit
and clear the mental imagery is, the higher the comprehension. Vague
imagery indicated a lack of importance and deep understanding of the
material. This difference may be crucial for moral dilemma reading
comprehension.
Previous research illustrates the foreign language effect on moral
dilemma comprehension and decision-making. Individuals who read moral
dilemmas in their second language are more likely to select utilitarian
responses than in their first language. Studies on mental imagery have
shown that mental imagery is relied upon for understanding and recalling
events -specifically, the more vivid the mental imagery, the higher the
level of narrative retention and comprehension. In contrast, vague
imagery resulted in a higher rate of misremembering or misunderstanding
the narrative.
The present study investigates the relationship between mental imagery
and moral dilemma decision-making in L2 comprehension. We assume that a
second language compared to a first language elicits lower vividness of
a story, which decreases story immersion. The decline in immersion
widens the distance between the reader and the characters in the story.
In our study, we set up two moral dilemma task conditions. Participants
in one condition were given mental imagery directions, whereas
participants in the other condition were not. We hypothesize that while
L2 moral dilemmas increases utilitarian responses, the imagery
directions will increase the vividness of the imagery, hence increasing
immersion. The immersion will result in a stronger emotional reaction
toward the dilemma, resulting in higher deontological responses2. EXPERIMENT
2.1 Method
For the non-imagery direction group, fifty-eight English second language
learners (36 females and 22 males, mean age = 29.41) were recruited from
two Japanese crowdsourcing websites. The recruitment conditions were
restricted to native Japanese individuals between 18 to 35 and with a
TOEIC score over 700 or Eiken1 test score higher than Grade 2. They were
rewarded 400 Yen for their participation. For the imagery direction
group, fifty-four participants (25 females, 29 males, mean age = 29.41)
with identical criteria were recruited from a Japanese crowdsourcing
website.