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\begin{document}

\title{Impact of coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic on households' livelihood:
Empirical evidence from Sokoto State, North Western Nigeria}



\author[1]{Lawali Bello Zoramawa}%
\author[1]{Adamu Hassan}%
\affil[1]{Sokoto State University}%


\vspace{-1em}



  
  \date{May 24, 2024}


\begingroup
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\maketitle
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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
This study investigates the impact of coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic on
households' livelihood in Sokoto State, Nigeria using a survey dataset
for a sample of two hundred and seventeen (217). The study applied mean
and standard deviation in analyzing the data and finding suggests that
covid-19 has negatively has negatively affected the household's
livelihood in terms of food security, market accessibility, and income
generation activities and women and youths empowerment. The study
further revealed that the pandemic put on negative influence on social
activities of the households such as children education, social
structure and gender relations. Furthermore, the study concludes that,
covid-19 has negative effects on cultural activities of the households
such as community events, funeral activities, ceremonies, sports
activities and cultural values. In addition to covid-19 pandemic, this
study also indicated that psychological behaviour of household such as
sustainable behavior, uncertainty; infections fears and family relations
were negatively affected. From the foregoing, this study recommends the
needs for the government to create a window in fiscal policy that will
accommodate any unforeseen health challenges in the future. Based on the
previous experience, the study further recommends the urgent need for
the households to be on alert on the future pandemic%
\end{abstract}%



\sloppy


Abstract

This study investigates the impact of coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic on
households' livelihood in Sokoto State, Nigeria using a survey dataset
for a sample of two hundred and seventeen (217). The study applied mean
and standard deviation in analyzing the data and finding suggests that
covid-19 has negatively has negatively affected the household's
livelihood in terms of food security, market accessibility, and income
generation activities and women and youths empowerment. The study
further revealed that the pandemic put on negative influence on social
activities of the households such as children education, social
structure and gender relations. Furthermore, the study concludes that,
covid-19 has negative effects on cultural activities of the households
such as community events, funeral activities, ceremonies, sports
activities and cultural values. In addition to covid-19 pandemic, this
study also indicated that psychological behaviour of household such as
sustainable behavior, uncertainty; infections fears and family relations
were negatively affected. From the foregoing, this study recommends the
needs for the government to create a window in fiscal policy that will
accommodate any unforeseen health challenges in the future. Based on the
previous experience, the study further recommends the need for the
households to be on alert on the future pandemic and take precautions
measures that would prevent the deterioration of socio-cultural
activities and psychological behaviour.

\emph{\textbf{Keywords:} covid-19, households, livelihood, Nigeria}

\textbf{Introduction}

The covid-19 pandemic is one of the most devastating events that has
disrupted and impacted on the economic social and physical activities in
livelihood of households all over the world. According to World Health
Organization-WHO (2020) and International Monetary Fund-IMF (2020) the
Pandemic spread like a wild fire to over two hundred (200) countries
around the world and brings on the most economic slowdown since the
Great depression. Covid-19 Pandemic was first identified in Wuhan,
China, causing massive death and has spread to almost all parts of the
world (Akanni \& Gabriel, 2020). WHO (2021), reported that globally, as
of 29 September 2021, that there have been~232,636,622~confirmed
cases~of covid-19 with 4,762,089 number of~deaths. In addition, the
Nigerian Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) reported that as of 29
September 2021, there have been a total number of 205,484 confirmed
cases with 9,286 of active cases and 2,702 deaths cases of covid-19 in
Nigeria.

In addition, the disease covid-19 not only signifies a global public
health emergency but has also become an international economic problem
that is likely to expand inequalities and affect poor and vulnerable
populations. The covid-19 has led to nearly shutdown of the world's
economy as airports, supermarkets, seaports, parks, stadiums, cinemas,
hotels, restaurants among others were closed(World Bank, 2020). These
have gradually milled world economies. In addition, the pandemic shocks
have led to closure of international boarders across the world, a punch
on globalization by all countries. This obviously calls for
self-reflection, forcing countries to search inward to survive
especially countries like Nigeria that are export dependent. Thus,
covid-19 pandemic has created the conditions that are equivalent to
levels of deprivation last seen in the mid-1980s (UNDP, 2020).

The pandemic has resulted in a drastic decrease of exports, particularly
raw materials; a decline in commodity prices to historical lows; a sharp
decline in services especially tourism; and a steep reduction in
remittances. This necessitates direct costs related to morbidity, health
care, and uncertainty. Moreover, the indirect costs in terms of
containment and mitigation measures imposed to reduce the spread of the
disease include reduction of labour, production capacity, productivity
and erosion of human capital (World Bank, 2020). The Bank further noted
that, the pandemic has negatively created demand, supply and welfare
shocks on individuals and households for all countries. From the demand
and supply sides, the pandemic has caused the reductions of people's
ability to work and firms to produce; it lowers the incentive for people
to consume and for firms to invest. It may hurt low- and middle-income
countries disproportionately because they lack the resources and
capacity to deal with systemic shocks, having larger informal sectors,
shallower financial markets, less fiscal space, and less developed
institutions and governance.

Considerably, coronavirus has negative effect on households' income due
to illness and decline in formal and non-formal employment and
remittances. Disruptions in the delivery of essential goods and
services, including health care, education and nutrition. Thus, erode
not only welfare but also human capital and future productivity.
Furthermore, the epidemic adversely affected women and other vulnerable
groups outside the formal social protection system. Moreover, the
corrosion in welfare, closure of educational institutions and other
services, and the increase in stress and violence can have irreversible
negative consequences for adolescent girls and children. Disability,
ethnic, religious, or geographic characteristics may further worsen the
negative effect from the pandemic. Hence, the pandemic has produced
adverse effects on poverty, vulnerability and human capital especially
in low-and middle-income countries (World Bank, 2020).

It is against this background that this study seeks to examine the
effect of covid-19 pandemic on households' livelihood in Sokoto State.

The framework depicted in Figure I explains the possible channels
through which covid-19 pandemic may likely affect the livelihood of
households within the dimensions of the social, economic, cultural and
physiological perspectives.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image1/image1}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

Several research efforts have been devoted to understanding the impact
covid-19 on different works of life in Nigeria and beyond. In addition
to conceptual presentation on the possible effect of covid-19 on
households' livelihood, similar empirical studies were conducted. For
instance, Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition- GAIN (2021) examines
the impact of covid-19 on Nigeria's Food Systems.

The results show that 15 months after the first cases of covid-19 were
recorded in Nigeria households are still struggling with the effects of
covid-19 control measures, including income losses, trade disruptions
and increasing food prices. In addition to covid-19 related disruptions,
the food system is being disrupted by increasing incidence of communal
conflicts, the presence of militant groups, violent clashes between
herders and farmers, banditry, kidnappings and Boko Haram who recently
attacked and hoisted their flag in some villages in Northern Nigeria.
Their activity contributes to food insecurity by disrupting food
production and supply chains. As unemployment correlates positively with
crime, these developments were likely exacerbated by covid-19, as the
loss of livelihoods and income-earning opportunities caused by the
pandemic may have driven many youths to join criminal groups. SMEs are
indirectly affected by shortages in supplies of agricultural products,
continued decreased consumer spending and persistent restrictions. Given
the absence of active commodity exchanges and significant food reserve
storage systems, the disruptions to crop production create a supply
shock that translates into high food prices.

World Bank (2020) analyzed the economic policy response to the covid-19
crisis in a global scenario. Result also shows that lower-income
countries increasingly find themselves locked out of global financial
markets, even as they face capital outflows and deteriorating
remittances. In addition to the demand shortfall and financial stress,
the covid-19 crisis also involves a major supply shock. Internationally,
supply chains threaten to break down, which may result in shortages of
key inputs and higher food prices. An important difference from previous
crises is the potential for a recurrent return of the supply shock until
a vaccine is developed. This threat weighs on the prospects for
recovery. Domestically, the study reveals that, social distancing
measures and lockdowns, which many countries have implemented in some
form to stave off the contagion, reduce both labour supply and demand,
as well as increase transaction costs.

UNDP (2020) examined the socioeconomic impact of the covid-19 Pandemic
in North Eastern Nigeria. The results indicated that covid-19 crisis
worsen the difficult situation in particular for communities residing in
the study area. Livelihoods have been disrupted by the armed conflict
and both production systems and households in the region remain fragile
to external shocks.

In addition, the findings show that the ongoing crisis continues to have
a profound impact on the population with an estimated 7.1 million people
in need of humanitarian assistance in Borno, Adamawa, and Yobe states
(BAY). The covid-19 pandemic has resulted in a slowdown in production
and intra- and interregional agricultural trade in the North-East,
including the movement of key agricultural commodities, thus region's
food supply chains were fully affected.

Balana et al., (2020) conducted a mobile phone descriptive survey on
effects of covid-19 pandemic policies on the incomes, employment, and
food security situation of smallholder farming households using data
collected from sample households in four Nigerian states. The findings
indicate that 88 percent of the households reported that they lost about
50 percent of their income due to the pandemic. As a result, about 66
percent of respondents reported they reduced food consumption during the
period. Travel and movement restrictions caused disruptions in
agricultural activities and supply chains, as 29 percent of respondents
reported planting fewer crops, 24 percent reduced cropping area, and 24
percent reduced fertilizer application.

In terms of household's food security, results show that covid-19
significantly worsened the food security situation of many households in
Nigeria, especially poorer households. More than 80 percent of
respondents worried about not having enough food and 77 percent ate less
food than they thought they should. Survey households also reported a
significant reduction of consumption of proteins (eggs, meat, and dairy
products) and fruits since the pandemic struck.

Hossain (2021) estimated the covid-19 impacts on employment and
livelihood of marginal People in Bangladesh. The results indicate that
the pandemic has created tremendous negative impacts on the livelihood
of the marginal population in Bangladesh. Many people working in the
informal sector have lost their job and income due to the ongoing
pandemic. Unemployment and poverty among the people in both urban and
rural areas throughout the country have increased. The success in
economic growth in the last few decades could not save poor people to
become extreme poor because economic prosperity was not inclusive in
Bangladesh.

Adebayo and Milu (2020) impact of covid-19 on food systems and rural
livelihoods in Nigeria using a stratified random sample of 110
respondent households drawn from five Local Government Areas (LGAs) in
Ogun (Ijebu East, Obafemi Owode, and ImekoAfon) and Kaduna (Chikun and
Soba) State. The findings show that movement restrictions resulted in
reduced availability and high cost of farm labour, which in turn,
resulted in a decline in land area cultivated. The ability of farmers to
sell their produce declined due to covid-19 restrictions on the movement
of traders from outside the communities, resulting in over-supply and
lower farm gate prices. Only about half of households engaged their
children in schoolwork during the covid-19 lockdown. Religious
organizations were the most common source of assistance, but the
majority of households did not get any form of covid-19 related
assistance. The majority of households reported decreased availability
and higher prices of food items in the covid-19 period. The majority of
households experienced a decline in consumption of healthy and
nutritious food in terms of frequency, quantity and quality.

Hawa and Park (2022) examined how coronavirus disease has impacted FDI,
using the quarterly data on bilateral FDI flows 173 home to 192 host
countries from the first quarter of 2019 to the second quarter of 2021.
The study measure the severity of covid-19 damages using three
indicators -- the number of confirmed cases, the number of deaths and
the stringency index of government policies that restricts peoples
activities. The results find that the severity of covid-19 in host
countries adversely affected FDI in the manufacturing sector, while the
effect of home countries has significantly negative impact on Greenfield
FDI.

Ogundipe, Festo and Ajayi (2021) investigated the effect of covid-19
pandemic on FDI flows into Nigeria from the third quarter of 2020. Using
quarterly data and applying trend analysis. Findings shows that FDI
flows have been on decline over the years.

Henry (2021) examined the impact of covid-19 on Economic Growth in
Nigeria. Using cross sectional survey research design and a mix-method
was used in collecting the data; cronbach alpha was used to assure its
reliability. The secondary data was analysed using a one sample t-test
and least squares method. Findings revealed that the covid-19 induced
lockdown has significantly constrained economic activities and the
circular flow of income and impacted negatively on economic growth. The
study recommends the need for policy makers to take drastic measures to
curtail the pandemic and forestall a recession.

Nweze and Nnadi (2021) investigated the effect of covid-19 lockdown on
the Nigerian economy. Using survey design and structured questionnaires
administered to Nigerians of different ranks in the states in Nigeria.
Two hypotheses were formulated and tested using Godden statistical tool
for analysis. Findings revealed that there is a significant positive
relationship between covid-19 economic lockdown and Nigerian economy,
the study also shows that government policy has a significant positive
effect on curb the economy of Nigeria. The study recommends that
government policies along with other covid-19 activities should be
strictly observed in practice.

Hawa and Park (2022) examined how coronavirus disease has impacted FDI,
using the quarterly data on bilateral FDI flows 173 home to 192 host
countries from the first quarter of 2019 to the second quarter of 2021.
The study measure the severity of covid-19 damage using three indicators
-- the number of confirmed cases, the number of deaths and the
stringency index of government policies that restricts peoples
activities. The result find that the severity of covid-19 in host
countries adversely affected FDI in the manufacturing sector, while the
effect of home countries has significantly negative impact on Greenfield
FDI.

Ogundipe, Festo and Ajayi (2021) investigated the effect of covid-19
pandemic on FDI flows into Nigeria from the third quarter of 2020. Using
quarterly data and applying trend analysis. Findings shows that FDI
flows have been on decline over the years.

Henry (2021) examined the impact of covid-19 on Economic Growth in
Nigeria. Using cross sectional survey research design and a mix-method
was used in collecting the data, cronbach alpha was used to assure its
reliability. The secondary data was analysed using a one sample t-test
and least squares method. Findings revealed that the covid-19 induced
lockdown has significantly constrained economic activities and the
circular flow of income and impacted negatively on economic growth. The
study recommends the need for policy makers to take drastic measures to
curtail the pandemic and forestall a recession.

Nweze and Nnadi (2021) investigated the effect of covid-19 lockdown on
the Nigerian economy. Using survey design and structured questionnaires
administered to Nigerians of different ranks in the states in Nigeria.
Two hypotheses were formulated and tested using Godden statistical tool
for analysis. Findings revealed that there is a significant positive
relationship between covid-19 economic lockdown and Nigerian economy,
the study also shows that government policy has a significant positive
effect on curb the economy of Nigeria. The study recommends that
government policies along with other covid-19 activities should be
strictly observed in practice.

\textbf{Method and Procedure}

The study employed Quantitative design and availability sampling
technique in selecting the number of households while multi-stage
sampling is used to select samples from the 23 Local Government Areas
(LGAs) in Sokoto State. The researchers utilized a structured
questionnaire as instruments of data collection The EAs selected for the
study are those the General Household Living Standard (GHLS) Survey
conducted by Nigerian Bureau of Statistics (NBS) in collaboration with
World Bank in 2020 as its sample. From the survey, Sokoto metropolis has
a representative sample of 230 households, 10 households randomly
selected from each of the 23 wards in the study area. The phone contacts
of the 230 sample households collected in the GHLS survey were used for
mobile phone survey opted in this study. The household heads constituted
the respondents for the study.

However, the data collected on the basis of the research questions were
analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation). The
decision rule is that averages of 3.0 and above was considered as
agreed, while an average of 2.99 and below were considered as disagreed
with respect to research questions. A mean of 3.0 according to Yusuf,
Gambari, Daramola, Badmus and Isiaka (2018) was used as a criterion to
decide the mean scores for five-point items. Hence, the mean criterion
of 3.0 was calculated from the sum of 5+ 4+3+2+1 divided by 5.

\textbf{2.1 Brief Description of the Study Area}

Sokoto State is located in the extreme Northwest of Nigeria and has a
total of twenty three (23) LGAs. According to the census conducted by
the National Bureau of Statistics in 2006, it has an estimated
population of more than 4.2 million with vast land of 27,973km, square.
Over 80\% of people living in the state practice agriculture with an
annual average temperature of 28.3\textsuperscript{0}C and the rainy
season are from June to October. In another survey by the NBS in 2010,
Sokoto state's GDP per capita stood at \$1274 billion but the poverty
rate is 50.6\%, the unemployment rate is 17.9\%, average household size
is 5.6\% and population density is 133.07km\textsuperscript{2}. As of
2012, the percentage of the population that is food poor is 56.5\%,
income inequality is measured at 0.46\% and incidence of poverty stood
at 81.3\% in 2015. Figure 1 presents its geographical features and the
23 local government areas in the State.

Figure 1: Sokoto State at a Glance\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image2/image2}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

Source: Sokoto State Government

The justification for the choice of Sokoto as study area as it becomes
imperative to draw the attention of all stakeholders (households,
government, farmers, marketers, e.t.c. on the implications of covid-19
on households livelihood in the State for effective policies, rational
decisions and corrective measures for available, affordable and reliable
measures on the future pandemic.

\textbf{2.2 Population and Sample}

The study examined households in Sokoto as the study population. Due to
the complex nature of the population, the study draws a sample of twelve
(12) LGAs systematically using the expression N/n where N is the
population and n is the sample size. The sample size (n) is determined
using Yamane's (1998) formula for sample size determination presented in
equation (2.1) with e =0.05 as the margin error.

(2.1)

The 12 LGAs sampled were drawn at the interval for reliability and
consistency. Households were further sampled though without the sampling
frame using the following expression as formulated by Cochran (1963:75)
which yield a representative sample for a large population;

(2.2)

Where n is the sample size and Z is the abscissa of the normal curve, e
is the desired level of precision or margin error (e = 0.05) and p is
the estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the
population and q is equal top-1. In all, the study surveyed 400
households across the 12 LGAs in the state.

\textbf{2.3 Analysis}

The study utilized descriptive statistics; simple percentages and tables
to present the analysis of the data surveyed from impact of covid-19 on
household's livelihood in Sokoto State.

\textbf{Discussion of Findings}

This section analyses and interprets the results from the data collected
in the field of the study. Initially four hundred and eighty (230)
copies of survey questionnaire were administered while four hundred and
seventeen (217) questionnaires were retrieved and used for data
analysis. A total number of thirteen (13) questionnaires were not
returned by the respondents after two weeks of distribution. This
represents five per cent (5.65\%) of the total questionnaires.

The interpretation is divided into four; namely, economic impact of
covid-19 on households, covid-19 and social activities of households,
covid-19 and cultural activities of households and covid-19 and
psychological behaviour of households in Sokoto State, Nigeria. The
results discussion begins with economic impact of covid-19 on
households; and the results are summarized and reported in Table 4.1.

\textbf{Table 4.1: Economic Impact of Covid-10 on Household}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{longtable}[]{@{}lllll@{}}
\toprule
\textbf{S/N} & \textbf{Statements} & \textbf{Mean} & \textbf{Std. Dev.}
& \textbf{Decision}\tabularnewline
1. & Covid-19 has negative effect on your food security & 3.79 & 0.40 &
Agree\tabularnewline
2. & Covid-19 has causes difficulties in Market accessibility during the
pandemic & 3.70 & 0.45 & Agree\tabularnewline
3. & There is a reduction in income generation activities due to
covid-19 pandemic in your business & 3.70 & 0.64 & Agree\tabularnewline
4. & A result of the pandemic there is decline in Women and youth
empowerment in your society & 2.69 & 0.78 & Agree\tabularnewline
\textbf{Cumulative Mean} & \textbf{Cumulative Mean} & \textbf{3.47} &
&\tabularnewline
\textbf{Decision Mean} & \textbf{Decision Mean} & \textbf{2.50} &
&\tabularnewline
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} Table 4.1 present the
results on how covid-19 pandemic impacted on households in Sokoto State.
From the Table 4.1, it was discovered that, the entire respondent agreed
that covid-19 has negatively affected the household. This is simply
because, the cumulative mean 3.47 is greater that the decision mean
2.50. This clearly indicated that, covid-19 has affected the food
security of the households, causes difficulties in market accessibility
as well as reduction in income generation of the households due to
pandemic. Covid-19 pandemic also affected people's participation in
economic activities particularly women and youths empowerment in the
society during the pandemic in Sokoto State. &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} Table 4.1 present the
results on how covid-19 pandemic impacted on households in Sokoto State.
From the Table 4.1, it was discovered that, the entire respondent agreed
that covid-19 has negatively affected the household. This is simply
because, the cumulative mean 3.47 is greater that the decision mean
2.50. This clearly indicated that, covid-19 has affected the food
security of the households, causes difficulties in market accessibility
as well as reduction in income generation of the households due to
pandemic. Covid-19 pandemic also affected people's participation in
economic activities particularly women and youths empowerment in the
society during the pandemic in Sokoto State. &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} Table 4.1 present the
results on how covid-19 pandemic impacted on households in Sokoto State.
From the Table 4.1, it was discovered that, the entire respondent agreed
that covid-19 has negatively affected the household. This is simply
because, the cumulative mean 3.47 is greater that the decision mean
2.50. This clearly indicated that, covid-19 has affected the food
security of the households, causes difficulties in market accessibility
as well as reduction in income generation of the households due to
pandemic. Covid-19 pandemic also affected people's participation in
economic activities particularly women and youths empowerment in the
society during the pandemic in Sokoto State. &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} Table 4.1 present the
results on how covid-19 pandemic impacted on households in Sokoto State.
From the Table 4.1, it was discovered that, the entire respondent agreed
that covid-19 has negatively affected the household. This is simply
because, the cumulative mean 3.47 is greater that the decision mean
2.50. This clearly indicated that, covid-19 has affected the food
security of the households, causes difficulties in market accessibility
as well as reduction in income generation of the households due to
pandemic. Covid-19 pandemic also affected people's participation in
economic activities particularly women and youths empowerment in the
society during the pandemic in Sokoto State. &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} Table 4.1 present the
results on how covid-19 pandemic impacted on households in Sokoto State.
From the Table 4.1, it was discovered that, the entire respondent agreed
that covid-19 has negatively affected the household. This is simply
because, the cumulative mean 3.47 is greater that the decision mean
2.50. This clearly indicated that, covid-19 has affected the food
security of the households, causes difficulties in market accessibility
as well as reduction in income generation of the households due to
pandemic. Covid-19 pandemic also affected people's participation in
economic activities particularly women and youths empowerment in the
society during the pandemic in Sokoto State.\tabularnewline
\textbf{Table 4.2: Covid-19 and Social Activities of Households} &
\textbf{Table 4.2: Covid-19 and Social Activities of Households} &
\textbf{Table 4.2: Covid-19 and Social Activities of Households} &
\textbf{Table 4.2: Covid-19 and Social Activities of Households} &
\textbf{Table 4.2: Covid-19 and Social Activities of
Households}\tabularnewline
\textbf{S/N} & \textbf{Statements} & \textbf{Mean} & \textbf{Std. Dev.}
& \textbf{Decision}\tabularnewline
1. & Covid-19 create difficulties in your children education & 3.70 &
0.56 & Agree\tabularnewline
2. & Covid-19 causes disarray in social structure due to pandemic in
your society & 3.38 & 1.01 & Agree\tabularnewline
3. & Loss of Gender relations caused by covid-19 pandemic in your family
& 2.60 & 1.02 & Agree\tabularnewline
\textbf{Cumulative Mean} & \textbf{Cumulative Mean} & \textbf{3.22} &
&\tabularnewline
\textbf{Decision Mean} & \textbf{Decision Mean} & \textbf{2.50} &
&\tabularnewline
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)}\tabularnewline
Table 4.2 contains the effects of covid-19 pandemic on social activities
of households in Sokoto State. From the Table 4.2 above, it was clear
that, all the respondents agreed on the effects of covid-19 pandemic on
social activities of the households in the state. These responses should
not be unconnected with the fact that, the cumulative mean 3.22 is
greater than the decision mean 2.50. From the analysis, the results
indicated that covid-19 has led to closure of schools and causes
difficulties in children education, social structures were seriously
affected and gender relation become difficult due to fear of the spread
of the virus \textbf{Table 4.3: Covid-19 and Cultural Activities of
Households} & Table 4.2 contains the effects of covid-19 pandemic on
social activities of households in Sokoto State. From the Table 4.2
above, it was clear that, all the respondents agreed on the effects of
covid-19 pandemic on social activities of the households in the state.
These responses should not be unconnected with the fact that, the
cumulative mean 3.22 is greater than the decision mean 2.50. From the
analysis, the results indicated that covid-19 has led to closure of
schools and causes difficulties in children education, social structures
were seriously affected and gender relation become difficult due to fear
of the spread of the virus \textbf{Table 4.3: Covid-19 and Cultural
Activities of Households} & Table 4.2 contains the effects of covid-19
pandemic on social activities of households in Sokoto State. From the
Table 4.2 above, it was clear that, all the respondents agreed on the
effects of covid-19 pandemic on social activities of the households in
the state. These responses should not be unconnected with the fact that,
the cumulative mean 3.22 is greater than the decision mean 2.50. From
the analysis, the results indicated that covid-19 has led to closure of
schools and causes difficulties in children education, social structures
were seriously affected and gender relation become difficult due to fear
of the spread of the virus \textbf{Table 4.3: Covid-19 and Cultural
Activities of Households} & Table 4.2 contains the effects of covid-19
pandemic on social activities of households in Sokoto State. From the
Table 4.2 above, it was clear that, all the respondents agreed on the
effects of covid-19 pandemic on social activities of the households in
the state. These responses should not be unconnected with the fact that,
the cumulative mean 3.22 is greater than the decision mean 2.50. From
the analysis, the results indicated that covid-19 has led to closure of
schools and causes difficulties in children education, social structures
were seriously affected and gender relation become difficult due to fear
of the spread of the virus \textbf{Table 4.3: Covid-19 and Cultural
Activities of Households} & Table 4.2 contains the effects of covid-19
pandemic on social activities of households in Sokoto State. From the
Table 4.2 above, it was clear that, all the respondents agreed on the
effects of covid-19 pandemic on social activities of the households in
the state. These responses should not be unconnected with the fact that,
the cumulative mean 3.22 is greater than the decision mean 2.50. From
the analysis, the results indicated that covid-19 has led to closure of
schools and causes difficulties in children education, social structures
were seriously affected and gender relation become difficult due to fear
of the spread of the virus \textbf{Table 4.3: Covid-19 and Cultural
Activities of Households}\tabularnewline
\textbf{S/N} & \textbf{Statements} & \textbf{Mean} & \textbf{Std. Dev.}
& \textbf{Decision}\tabularnewline
1. & Difficulties in organizing community events as a results of the
pandemic in your locality & 3.39 & 0.92 & Agree\tabularnewline
2. & Covid-19 causes fears of the pandemic and low turnout during
funeral activities & 3.20 & 0.75 & Agree\tabularnewline
3. & Difficulties in organizing ceremonies during marriages, naming
ceremonies and other activities in your family & 3.59 & 0.66 &
Agree\tabularnewline
4. & Covid-19 causes stoppage of sports activities in your area due to
pandemic & 3.79 & 0.40 & Agree\tabularnewline
5. & Covid-19 affects cultural values during the pandemic & 3.09 & 0.95
& Agree\tabularnewline
\textbf{Cumulative Mean} & \textbf{Cumulative Mean} & \textbf{3.41} &
&\tabularnewline
\textbf{Decision Mean} & \textbf{Decision Mean} & \textbf{2.50} &
&\tabularnewline
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)} &
\emph{\textbf{Source:}Field survey (2022.)}\tabularnewline
Table 4.3 analyzed the results of the effects of covid-19 pandemic of
cultural activities of the households. In the Table 4.3 aforementioned,
the respondents agree that cultural activities have been affected during
the pandemic as contained in both the cumulative mean 3.41 and the
decision mean 2.50. The results further revealed that, covid-19 has
negatively affects community events due to social distancing, causes
fears in funeral activities, difficulties in organizing ceremonies such
as marriage, sports activities were halt during the pandemic as well as
cultural values in Sokoto State. \textbf{Table 4.4: Covid-19 and
Psychological Behavior of Households} & Table 4.3 analyzed the results
of the effects of covid-19 pandemic of cultural activities of the
households. In the Table 4.3 aforementioned, the respondents agree that
cultural activities have been affected during the pandemic as contained
in both the cumulative mean 3.41 and the decision mean 2.50. The results
further revealed that, covid-19 has negatively affects community events
due to social distancing, causes fears in funeral activities,
difficulties in organizing ceremonies such as marriage, sports
activities were halt during the pandemic as well as cultural values in
Sokoto State. \textbf{Table 4.4: Covid-19 and Psychological Behavior of
Households} & Table 4.3 analyzed the results of the effects of covid-19
pandemic of cultural activities of the households. In the Table 4.3
aforementioned, the respondents agree that cultural activities have been
affected during the pandemic as contained in both the cumulative mean
3.41 and the decision mean 2.50. The results further revealed that,
covid-19 has negatively affects community events due to social
distancing, causes fears in funeral activities, difficulties in
organizing ceremonies such as marriage, sports activities were halt
during the pandemic as well as cultural values in Sokoto State.
\textbf{Table 4.4: Covid-19 and Psychological Behavior of Households} &
Table 4.3 analyzed the results of the effects of covid-19 pandemic of
cultural activities of the households. In the Table 4.3 aforementioned,
the respondents agree that cultural activities have been affected during
the pandemic as contained in both the cumulative mean 3.41 and the
decision mean 2.50. The results further revealed that, covid-19 has
negatively affects community events due to social distancing, causes
fears in funeral activities, difficulties in organizing ceremonies such
as marriage, sports activities were halt during the pandemic as well as
cultural values in Sokoto State. \textbf{Table 4.4: Covid-19 and
Psychological Behavior of Households} & Table 4.3 analyzed the results
of the effects of covid-19 pandemic of cultural activities of the
households. In the Table 4.3 aforementioned, the respondents agree that
cultural activities have been affected during the pandemic as contained
in both the cumulative mean 3.41 and the decision mean 2.50. The results
further revealed that, covid-19 has negatively affects community events
due to social distancing, causes fears in funeral activities,
difficulties in organizing ceremonies such as marriage, sports
activities were halt during the pandemic as well as cultural values in
Sokoto State. \textbf{Table 4.4: Covid-19 and Psychological Behavior of
Households}\tabularnewline
\textbf{S/N} & \textbf{Statements} & \textbf{Mean} & \textbf{Std. Dev.}
& \textbf{Decision}\tabularnewline
1. & Sustainable behavior unsure during the pandemic & 3.20 & 0.75
&\tabularnewline
2. & Covid-19 causes Uncertainty in business, education as a results of
the pandemic & 3.20 & 0.75 &\tabularnewline
3. & Covid-19 cause Infections Fears during the pandemic and lack of
social interactions & 2.80 & 1.17 &\tabularnewline
\textbf{Cumulative Mean} & \textbf{Cumulative Mean} & \textbf{3.07} &
&\tabularnewline
\textbf{Decision Mean} & \textbf{Decision Mean} & \textbf{2.50} &
&\tabularnewline
\emph{\textbf{Source:} Field survey (2022.)} & \emph{\textbf{Source:}
Field survey (2022.)} & \emph{\textbf{Source:} Field survey (2022.)} &
\emph{\textbf{Source:} Field survey (2022.)} & \emph{\textbf{Source:}
Field survey (2022.)}\tabularnewline
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

Table 4.4 revealed the results of the effects of covid-19 pandemic on
psychological behaviour of the households in Sokoto State. All the
respondents agreed that, covid-19 has affected the psychological
behaviour of the households during the pandemic as evident on the
cumulative mean 3.07 and the decision mean 2.50. During the pandemic the
sustainability in people's behaviour was uncertain due to the negative
effects of covid-19 on psychological behaviour of the households, causes
uncertainty in business due to inaccessibility of the market and
infections fears which causes fear in human contacts and banned in
social gathering during the pandemic in Sokoto State. Therefore, the
study concludes that, the psychological behaviour of the household was
negatively affected during the outbreak.

\textbf{Conclusion and Recommendations}

This study concludes that covid-19 has negatively affected the
household's livelihood in terms of food security, market accessibility,
and income generation activities and women and youths empowerment. The
study further concludes that the pandemic put on negative influence on
social activities of the households such as children education, social
structure and gender relations. Furthermore, the study concludes that,
covid-19 has negative effects on cultural activities of the households
such as community events, funeral activities, ceremonies, sports
activities and cultural values. Finally, the study also concludes that,
covid-19 has negative effects on psychological behaviour of household
such as sustainable behaviour, uncertainty, infections fears and family
relations. Based on the findings, this study recommends the needs for
the government to create a window in fiscal policy that will accommodate
any unforeseen health challenges in the future. Based on the previous
experience, the study further recommends the need for the households to
be on alert on the future pandemic and take precautions measures that
would prevent the deterioration of socio-cultural activities and
psychological behaviour.

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