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Table 1. Sample description
| | Group waitlist (n = 13) | Group only intervention (n = 14) |
| | Mean ± SD | Range | Mean ± SD | Range |
| Age | 25.3 ± 7.0 | 18-37 | 22.6 ± 2.8 | 19-27 |
| BMI in kg/m2 | 22.9 ± 4.5 | 18.3-32.2 | 22.9 ± 3.6 | 18.4-29.4 |
| Gender | 12f, 1m | 14f |
| Active menstrual cycle | 11 yes, 2 no | 14 yes |
| HC usage | 36.4% | 42.9% |
| PAF sum | 54.7 ± 13.4 | 23-70 | 57.4 ± 20.2 | 19-93 |
| BDI-II sum | 12.9 ± 7.2 | 0-27 | 13.4 ± 8.0 | 2-30 |
| Inclusion criterium | 4 BDI, 4 PAF, 5 both | 4 BDI, 4 PAF, 6 both |
| DASS sum | 34.1 ± 7,1 | 27-54 | 40.5 ± 8.3 | 25-50 |
| RMSSD in ms | 37.0 ± 10.9 | 19.6-51.5 | 41.9 ± 30.1 | 18.7-128.9 |
| ANT-R Executive in ms | 148.1 ± 56.8 | 76.7-291.3 | 129.2 ± 39.1 | 80.8-194.9 |
| ANT-R Orienting in ms | 85.0 ± 37.3 | 36.3-149.6 | 120.6 ± 35.1 | 46.7-183.8 |
Note. The DASS, RMSSD, and ANT-R values were obtained during the first laboratory session of each participant. All other values were assessed during the screening. SD – standard deviation; BMI – body-mass-index; HC – hormonal contraceptives; PAF – premenstrual assessment form; BDI-II – Becks Depression Inventory; DASS – depression anxiety stress scales; RMSSD – root mean square of successive differences; ANT-R – revised attention network test.
Table 2. Results of a linear mixed model predicting premenstrual symptoms
| | value PAF20 item |
| Predictors | Estimates | CI | p |
| (Intercept) | 2.92 | 2.44 – 3.40 | <0.001 |
| group [W] | -0.28 | -0.50 – -0.07 | 0.010 |
| time | -0.30 | -0.54 – -0.07 | 0.012 |
| scale [psy] | 1.08 | 0.61 – 1.56 | <0.001 |
| group [W] * time | 0.40 | 0.03 – 0.78 | 0.034 |
| (group [I] * time) * scale [psy] | -0.36 | -0.65 – -0.06 | 0.017 |
| (group [W] * time )* scale [psy] | 0.13 | -0.26 – 0.51 | 0.520 |
| Random Effects |
| σ2 | 1.40 |
| τ00 participant | 0.58 |
| τ00 item | 0.24 |
| ICC | 0.37 |
| N participant | 24 |
| N item | 20 |
| Observations | 1300 |
| Marginal R2 / Conditional R2 | 0.116 / 0.442 |
Note. The random effect structure includes participant intercepts and item intercepts. PAF20 – premenstrual assessment form short version; group – treatment (biofeedback vs. waitlist); W – waitlist; I – intervention (biofeedback); psy – psychological symptoms.
Table 3. Post-Hoc Tukey effects of time*treatment*scale interaction term predicting premenstrual symptoms
| | Scale | Diff | p |
| Waitlist | Physio | 0.06 | .54 |
| Psych | 0.14 | .11 |
| Intervention | Physio | -0.19 | .012 |
| Psych | -0.42 | <.0001 |
Note. Diff – standardized pre-post treatment difference; psych – psychological symptoms; physio – physiological symptoms.
Table 4. Results of a linear mixed model predicting depressive symptoms
| | value BDI item |
| Predictors | Estimates | CI | p |
| (Intercept) | 1.69 | 0.54 – 0.83 | <0.001 |
| group [W] | -0.09 | -0.18 – 0.00 | 0.054 |
| time | -0.17 | -0.24 – -0.10 | <0.001 |
| group [W] * time | 0.21 | 0.09 – 0.33 | 0.001 |
| Random Effects |
| σ2 | 0.34 |
| τ00 participant | 0.10 |
| τ00 item | 0.03 |
| ICC | 0.27 |
| N participant | 27 |
| N item | 21 |
| Observations | 1617 |
| Marginal R2 / Conditional R2 | 0.010 / 0.281 |
Note. The random effect structure includes participant intercepts and item intercepts. BDI – Beck’s Depression Inventory II; group – treatment (biofeedback vs. waitlist); W – waitlist.
Table 5. Results of a linear mixed model predicting stress/anxiety symptoms
| | value DASS item |
| Predictors | Estimates | CI | p |
| (Intercept) | 1.12 | 0.64 – 1.60 | <0.001 |
| time | -0.14 | -0.22 – -0.07 | <0.001 |
| group [W] | -0.11 | -0.20 – -0.01 | 0.023 |
| scale [D] | 0.11 | -0.19 – 0.40 | 0.466 |
| scale [S] | 0.44 | 0.15 – 0.74 | 0.003 |
| rmssd | 0.14 | 0.03 – 0.26 | 0.015 |
| time * group [W] | 0.21 | 0.09 – 0.34 | 0.001 |
| Random Effects |
| σ2 | 0.35 |
| τ00 participant | 0.14 |
| τ00 item | 0.07 |
| ICC | 0.39 |
| N participant | 27 |
| N item | 21 |
| Observations | 1617 |
| Marginal R2 / Conditional R2 | 0.074 / 0.432 |
Note. The random effect structure includes participant intercepts and item intercepts. DASS – Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale; group – treatment (biofeedback vs. waitlist); W – waitlist; D – depression scale; S – stress scale; RMSSD – root mean square of successive differences.
Table 6. Results of a linear mixed model predicting vagally mediated heart rate variability
| | log(RMSSD in ms) |
| Predictors | Estimates | CI | p |
| (Intercept) | 3.53 | 3.32 – 3.75 | <0.001 |
| group [W] | 0.07 | -0.15 – 0.29 | 0.546 |
| time | 0.06 | -0.12 – 0.23 | 0.509 |
| group [W] * time | -0.13 | -0.42 – 0.16 | 0.381 |
| Random Effects |
| σ2 | 0.08 |
| τ00 participant | 0.21 |
| ICC | 0.71 |
| N participant | 25 |
| Observations | 71 |
| Marginal R2 / Conditional R2 | 0.003 / 0.711 |
Note. The random effect structure includes participant intercepts. RMSSD – root mean square of successive differences; group – treatment (biofeedback vs. waitlist); W – waitlist.
Table 7. Results of a linear mixed model predicting attentional control
| | Reaction time |
| Predictors | Estimates | CI | p |
| (Intercept) | 600.31 | 574.20 – 626.41 | <0.001 |
| time | -37.63 | -49.22 – -26.05 | <0.001 |
| group [W] | 39.00 | 31.02 – 46.99 | <0.001 |
| flanker [incongruent] | 130.14 | 123.20 – 137.08 | <0.001 |
| cue [valid] | -98.44 | -106.51 – -90.37 | <0.001 |
| time × group [I] × cue [invalid] | 45.56 | 28.15 – 62.97 | <0.001 |
| time × group [W] ×cue [invalid] | -0.22 | -16.33 – 15.89 | 0.978 |
| time × group [I] × cue [valid] | 41.09 | 27.57 – 54.61 | <0.001 |
| time × group [I] × flanker [incongruent] | -26.57 | -37.90 – -15.25 | <0.001 |
| time × group [W] × flanker [incongruent] | -9.44 | -23.31 – 4.43 | 0.182 |
| Random Effects |
| σ2 | 11369.21 |
| τ00 participant | 4325.41 |
| ICC | 0.28 |
| N participant | 27 |
| Observations | 7040 |
| Marginal R2 / Conditional R2 | 0.267 / 0.469 |
Note. The model predicts trial-based prediction times of the revised attention network test. The random effect structure includes participant intercepts. Group – treatment (biofeedback vs. waitlist); W – waitlist; I – intervention (biofeedback).