We asked a subset of participants about the presence of dead bats on
their properties (n = 79). Nearly 65% reported dead bats on
properties (n = 51). Most removed dead bats, usually by throwing
them over property lines (n = 30) or swept them outside (n= 7). Some also reported burning (n = 6), feeding to domestic
cats (n = 2), and burying of carcasses (n = 1).
Interestingly, 13 respondents reported seeing domestic animals (dogs,
cats, and chickens) consume dead bats on their property, most often
their own animals.
DISCUSSION
We establish that buildings are a common interface for human-bat contact
in rural Africa and that these interactions can be intense, frequent,
and occur consistently over long periods of time. Our survey respondents
had exposure to bats in ways that can promote pathogen transmission
through direct or indirect pathways, as well as via domestic animals.
Much attention has focused on bushmeat hunting and wet markets as
high-risk practices and settings for wildlife pathogen exposure risk.
Given the increasing rate of urbanization and subsequent habitat loss
bats are experiencing, anthropogenic structure sharing by humans and
bats is likely to become more common across the globe and a greater risk
setting for zoonotic spillover.
Our results show that bats and humans contacted each other directly
(e.g., touching, scratches, bites, etc.) and indirectly (e.g., contact
with bat excrement). Direct contacts can expose humans to lethal viruses
hosted by bats, with various lyssaviruses (including rabies virus) being
the most well-known bat-borne pathogens transmitted in this manner
(Warrell and Warrell 2004). Indirect contacts were frequently reported
in our study and are also common pathways for zoonotic pathogen
transmission (Loh et al. 2015). Bat excreta reported in these indirect
interactions, mostly feces, can contain pathogens shed by bats in this
region, including coronaviruses, rotaviruses, and paramyxoviruses that
are viral families of concern (Waruhiu et al. 2017). Fungal pathogens,
like Histoplasma capsulatum , the causative agent of
histoplasmosis, may also be inhaled from bat fecal dust and have
infected people living in buildings with bat roosts in Africa (Ocansey
et al. 2022).
Multiple respondents reported observing domestic animals – mainly cats,
dogs, and chickens – consuming bats. Predation and consumption of bats
can facilitate transmission of zoonotic parasites into consumers,
including domestic animals (Karesh and Noble 2009), which can also serve
as bridge hosts for onward transmission to humans (Salinas-Ramos et al.
2021). Furthermore, bats will roost in livestock enclosures in this
region and may deposit feces or bodily fluids in spaces frequently used
by domestic animals (Jackson et al. 2023). Many frugivorous bat species
may chew and eject saliva-covered fruit pulp below their roosts, which
domestic animals may also then consume and become exposed to shed
pathogens (Openshaw et al. 2016). Indeed, it has been proposed that
Nipah and Hendra virus, both paramyxoviruses, emerged in pigs and horses
in this fashion, respectively (Marsh and Wang 2012).
Our results show that community members attempted to remove bats from
their buildings, mostly via fumigation with pesticides, blocking off bat
entrance points, and direct killing of bats. These activities often led
to direct human contact with bats, creating additional opportunities for
pathogen exposure. Stress to bats caused by removal attempts can also
increase pathogen transmission risk by altering bat behavior and immune
function, which collectively drive contact rates and viral
susceptibility and shedding (Streicker et al. 2013, Amman et al. 2014,
Torquetti et al. 2021). Furthermore, high bat mortality rates can also
negatively impact the critical ecosystem services that bats provide by
reducing their ability to consume insect pests, pollinate fruit trees,
and disperse seeds (Kunz et al. 2011).
The presence of bats in buildings is a common occurrence in developing
settings, and our findings establish that there are frequent and
prolonged interactions between humans and bats, consistent with
interactions that can facilitate pathogen spillover. With a growing and
urbanizing human population, as well as the destruction of natural
roosting sites for bats, it is likely that cohabitation of bats and
humans in anthropogenic structures will continue to increase globally
(Russo and Ancillotto 2015, Voigt et al. 2016). While we establish the
importance of this interface, further work is needed to identify the
risks from co-habiting synanthropic wildlife in these domestic spaces,
including zoonotic pathogen presence and potential for transmission.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Peter Mwasi, Benson Lombo, and Darius Kimuzi for their
assistance in data collection. We thank and acknowledge the Taita
people, the managers of the land where this study was conducted, for
their enthusiasm in working with us and describing their experiences. We
also thank the Taita Environmental Research and Resource Arc for their
logistical assistance, especially Miltone Kimori and Ken Gicheru. We
thank Dr. David Irungu for his assistance with translation of the
survey. This work was supported by the Arkansas Biosciences Institute.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest to report.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Reilly T. Jackson, Joseph G. Ogola, Paul W. Webala, and Kristian M.
Forbes conceived the ideas and designed methodology. Reilly T. Jackson,
Tamika. J. Lunn, Isabella K. DeAnglis, Joseph G. Ogola, and Paul W.
Webala collected the data; Reilly T. Jackson analyzed the data; Reilly
T. Jackson led the writing of the manuscript. All authors contributed to
edits and approval the final manuscript.
STATEMENT ON INCLUSION
This study brings together authors from the United States and Kenya,
where the study was conducted. Authors from both countries worked
together from this project’s inception to develop the methodology and
survey used in this study. When possible, literature written by authors
from this region was cited in the manuscript. Findings from this study
will be disseminated to communities participating in this research in
their local language.
DATA ACCESSIBILITY
Declassified data from this study will be published on Figshare pending
acceptance.
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