We asked a subset of participants about the presence of dead bats on their properties (n = 79). Nearly 65% reported dead bats on properties (n = 51). Most removed dead bats, usually by throwing them over property lines (n = 30) or swept them outside (n= 7). Some also reported burning (n = 6), feeding to domestic cats (n = 2), and burying of carcasses (n = 1). Interestingly, 13 respondents reported seeing domestic animals (dogs, cats, and chickens) consume dead bats on their property, most often their own animals.
DISCUSSION
We establish that buildings are a common interface for human-bat contact in rural Africa and that these interactions can be intense, frequent, and occur consistently over long periods of time. Our survey respondents had exposure to bats in ways that can promote pathogen transmission through direct or indirect pathways, as well as via domestic animals. Much attention has focused on bushmeat hunting and wet markets as high-risk practices and settings for wildlife pathogen exposure risk. Given the increasing rate of urbanization and subsequent habitat loss bats are experiencing, anthropogenic structure sharing by humans and bats is likely to become more common across the globe and a greater risk setting for zoonotic spillover.
Our results show that bats and humans contacted each other directly (e.g., touching, scratches, bites, etc.) and indirectly (e.g., contact with bat excrement). Direct contacts can expose humans to lethal viruses hosted by bats, with various lyssaviruses (including rabies virus) being the most well-known bat-borne pathogens transmitted in this manner (Warrell and Warrell 2004). Indirect contacts were frequently reported in our study and are also common pathways for zoonotic pathogen transmission (Loh et al. 2015). Bat excreta reported in these indirect interactions, mostly feces, can contain pathogens shed by bats in this region, including coronaviruses, rotaviruses, and paramyxoviruses that are viral families of concern (Waruhiu et al. 2017). Fungal pathogens, like Histoplasma capsulatum , the causative agent of histoplasmosis, may also be inhaled from bat fecal dust and have infected people living in buildings with bat roosts in Africa (Ocansey et al. 2022).
Multiple respondents reported observing domestic animals – mainly cats, dogs, and chickens – consuming bats. Predation and consumption of bats can facilitate transmission of zoonotic parasites into consumers, including domestic animals (Karesh and Noble 2009), which can also serve as bridge hosts for onward transmission to humans (Salinas-Ramos et al. 2021). Furthermore, bats will roost in livestock enclosures in this region and may deposit feces or bodily fluids in spaces frequently used by domestic animals (Jackson et al. 2023). Many frugivorous bat species may chew and eject saliva-covered fruit pulp below their roosts, which domestic animals may also then consume and become exposed to shed pathogens (Openshaw et al. 2016). Indeed, it has been proposed that Nipah and Hendra virus, both paramyxoviruses, emerged in pigs and horses in this fashion, respectively (Marsh and Wang 2012).
Our results show that community members attempted to remove bats from their buildings, mostly via fumigation with pesticides, blocking off bat entrance points, and direct killing of bats. These activities often led to direct human contact with bats, creating additional opportunities for pathogen exposure. Stress to bats caused by removal attempts can also increase pathogen transmission risk by altering bat behavior and immune function, which collectively drive contact rates and viral susceptibility and shedding (Streicker et al. 2013, Amman et al. 2014, Torquetti et al. 2021). Furthermore, high bat mortality rates can also negatively impact the critical ecosystem services that bats provide by reducing their ability to consume insect pests, pollinate fruit trees, and disperse seeds (Kunz et al. 2011).
The presence of bats in buildings is a common occurrence in developing settings, and our findings establish that there are frequent and prolonged interactions between humans and bats, consistent with interactions that can facilitate pathogen spillover. With a growing and urbanizing human population, as well as the destruction of natural roosting sites for bats, it is likely that cohabitation of bats and humans in anthropogenic structures will continue to increase globally (Russo and Ancillotto 2015, Voigt et al. 2016). While we establish the importance of this interface, further work is needed to identify the risks from co-habiting synanthropic wildlife in these domestic spaces, including zoonotic pathogen presence and potential for transmission.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Peter Mwasi, Benson Lombo, and Darius Kimuzi for their assistance in data collection. We thank and acknowledge the Taita people, the managers of the land where this study was conducted, for their enthusiasm in working with us and describing their experiences. We also thank the Taita Environmental Research and Resource Arc for their logistical assistance, especially Miltone Kimori and Ken Gicheru. We thank Dr. David Irungu for his assistance with translation of the survey. This work was supported by the Arkansas Biosciences Institute.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest to report.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Reilly T. Jackson, Joseph G. Ogola, Paul W. Webala, and Kristian M. Forbes conceived the ideas and designed methodology. Reilly T. Jackson, Tamika. J. Lunn, Isabella K. DeAnglis, Joseph G. Ogola, and Paul W. Webala collected the data; Reilly T. Jackson analyzed the data; Reilly T. Jackson led the writing of the manuscript. All authors contributed to edits and approval the final manuscript.
STATEMENT ON INCLUSION
This study brings together authors from the United States and Kenya, where the study was conducted. Authors from both countries worked together from this project’s inception to develop the methodology and survey used in this study. When possible, literature written by authors from this region was cited in the manuscript. Findings from this study will be disseminated to communities participating in this research in their local language.
DATA ACCESSIBILITY
Declassified data from this study will be published on Figshare pending acceptance.
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