Limitations

    This study has some limitations that should be considered. First, the sample is limited. Second, physical violence was not explored because 1) the interest of this study was to examine psychological and relational violence, and 2) the participants were reluctant to respond to certain items. Finally, because of the sensitivity of the topic, it is possible that some abusive behaviors remained undetected as participants may not have responded honestly because of the social implications and the stigma associated with IPV. In Spain, endeavors have been made to reduce IPV. Hence, adolescents are aware of its existence and consequences, but their knowledge is founded on the most salient examples (i.e., physical aggressions, femicide). As the social stigma associated with victim status has a great psychological impact, adolescents could avoid this label unless they experience extreme episodes of violence.