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\begin{document}

\title{Fate of Palynofacies (sedimentary organic matter) in suburban and urban
flood plains of Gomati River, Lucknow, India}



\author[1]{Biswajeet Thakur}%
\author[1]{Pooja Tiwari}%
\author[2]{Purnima Srivastava}%
\affil[1]{Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany}%
\affil[2]{University of Lucknow}%


\vspace{-1em}



  
  \date{May 04, 2024}


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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
Hydromorphodynamic interactions with vegetation are a part of fluvial
biomorphodynamics in actively meandering rivers. Using palynofacies and
grain size from sub-urban to urban reaches across the river valley, we
examine the spatial patterns of organic matter behaviour in a 38 km
reach of the river Gomati in Lucknow district, Uttar Pradesh, India, in
an effort to understand how they responds to the alteration,
preservation, and degradation after getting transported and deposited in
sediment. To this we analyzed thirteen surface sediment samples of the
Gomati River flood plain for palynofacies and grain size to ascertain
its fate in this stretch which essentially is a big picture for past
settlements. The shifts in the proportions of palynofacies associations
viz. phytoclasts, palynomorphs, and amorphous organic matter (AOM) along
with grain size aims to visualize the depositional process. The CONISS
clusters analysis revealed four zones reflecting high degradation and
alteration of palynofacies in the urban regime compared to the sub-urban
reaches where the low interference with natural settings illustrate low
deterioration of palynofacies. The relationship between grain size and
palynofacies was obtained using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to
emphasize their correlation with palynofacies in this meandering fluvial
system of Gomati River. In the flood plains deposits, the behaviours of
palynofacies, allow for the distinction of the regional aspect of
fluvial disposition. The study offers a comparison between urban and
sub-urban settlement premises of today's communities and contributes to
our understanding of the growth, dispersal, and decline of earlier human
settlements.%
\end{abstract}%



\sloppy


\textbf{INTRODUCTION}

Floodplains are regions of land adjacent to a river that stretches from
the channel's banks to the foot of the valley's surrounding walls and is
subjected to flooding during times of heavy flow with soil composition
made up of clays, silts, sands, and gravels that have been left behind
by floods. Due to their high soil fertility, they deposit nutrients and
water in the form of organic matter and helped to provide some
significant agricultural regions, such as the Mississippi river basin
and the Nile (Aslan, 2003; Kov\selectlanguage{ngerman}ács, János, 2013). Fluvial
geomorphological and biological processes both pioneer in shaping river
landscapes (Aslan, 2003; Gurnell et al., 2012; van Oorschot et al.,
2016; Kleinhans et al., 2018; Kleinhans et al., 2019). Due to the
fertile nature of the soil and freshwater availability, both
agricultural and urban sectors grow close to or on floodplains, the
large rivers such as the Ganga, the Mississippi, and the Nile are
typical examples (Aslan, 2003; Singh 1996; Tandon and Sinha, 2007; Jain
and Tandon, 2010; Kovács, János, 2013;). The Ganga Basin along with its
different tributaries is a magnificent example of a floodplain region
with numerous geomorphic features in a foreland basin (Singh 1996;
Tandon and Sinha, 2007; Jain and Tandon, 2010). Due to the high
agriculture, urbanisation, with surface and ground water systems, the
basin is well known on a global scale for its potential at variable
scales. When paired with geomorphological information, the palynofacies
(particulate organic matter) is an effective analytical tool that is
used to evaluate the depositional environment and the potential for
producing hydrocarbons (older successions) in both contemporary and
historical samples (Traverse, 1994; Tyson, 1995; Batten 1996; Sebag et
al., 2006; Mendonça Filho et al., 2011a; Carvalho et al., 2013; Mueller
et al., 2014; Thakur et al., 2019). The analysis of palynological
organic matter (palynofacies), entails a comprehensive examination of
all aspects of the sediment, including the identification of the various
particulate constituents and evaluation of their absolute and relative
proportions, particle sizes, and preservation statuses (Sebag et al.,
2006; Mendonça Filho et al., 2011a).

The term 'palynofacies' was coined by Combaz (1964) and describes the
total assemblage of particulate organic matter contained in sediments
and sedimentary rocks after removing the carbonates and silica. Later,
Tyson (1995) introduced the idea of modern palynofacies and its applied
elements to identify a particular group of environmental importance and
their relationship to hydrocarbon potential. Palynofacies is a
significant unsoluble portion of the biotic component in any sedimentary
environment, providing crucial information for interpreting
process-driven changes both naturally and anthropogenically (Traverse,
1994; Sebag et al., 2006; Mendonça Filho et al., 2011a; Sridhar et al.,
2020; Xenopoulos et al., 2021) enabling us to recognize, measure, and
evaluate the state of preservation (Traverse, 1994; Tyson, 1995; Sebag
et al., 2006; Mendonça Filho et al., 2011a). For multi-dimensional
investigations such as climate change, hydrodynamic conditions,
oxic-anoxic habitats, run-off-related processes, proximal-distal trends,
palaeoenvironments, and archaeology study, both in continental and
marine records, it is currently acknowledged as a reliable proxy (Tyson
and Follows, 2000; Hoaen, 2000; Closas et al., 2005; Carvalho et al.,
2013; Mueller et al.\emph{,} 2014; Sridhar et al., 2020) along with
addressing the taphonomical biases (Tyson, 1995; Batten, 1996; Prasad et
al., 2007; Prasad et al., 2013). The epicontinental samples and deposits
of marine origin have been extensively studied using palynofacies and
organic geochemistry techniques from Paleozoic (Mendonça-Filho, 1999;
Mendonça Filho et al., 2011a), Mesozoic (Carvalho et al., 2006a; Iemini
et al., 2007), and Cenozoic rocks (Del Papa et al., 2002; Menezes and
Mendonça, 2011a). Principally it aids in inferring depositional
environments from sedimentary/ lithofacies which may be unfossiliferous.
When interpreting the mechanisms governing deposition, they also aid in
understanding sedimentary sequences and developing sequence
stratigraphic framework (Prasad et al., 2013).

Sebag et al. (2006) provide a detailed review of the major approaches
for palynofacies characterization in recent terrestrial environments and
is based on applied examples in surface deposits, soil profiles,
wetlands, lacustrine ecosystems, and within catchments.

The present study takes into account the palynofacies constituents and
sediment texture analyses on the surface sediments from the flood plain
of the Gomati River to analyse the fate of biotic components. The modern
analogue will serve as a representation of the sediment texture,
distribution, and conservation of palynofacies. It looks for subtle
variations in palynofacies and sediment texture variability in an
environment with fluvial system (mostly the meandering stage). The goal
is to comprehend the recent to sub-recent sediments from flood plain
zones of Gomati River that are influenced by anthropogenic and natural
factors. Their variation and correlation are related to environmental
conditions and aims to gauge changes in the depositional system in the
flood plains of the Gomati River in the Lucknow district, Uttar Pradesh,
India. The study aims to ratify the modest changes of palynofacies that
have not yet been explored in fluvial system studies elsewhere in the
terrestrial domain. The Ganga plain, where the Gomati River runs, has
very fertile soil since antiquity. With examples like Hulas Khera,
Hariharpur, Zoharganj, Gopalpur, Saraiya, Brahamanpur, Krishnapur, and
many more, it has also benefited archaeology (Upadhyay, 2019).
Establishing human activities in the Middle Ganga Plain requires a major
effort with integrated study of proxies such as palynofacies and
sediment texture and others. The study also looks into the utilisation
of ratios of burned and degraded charcoal, as well as cuticle and
tracheids, to define the degradation and deterioration of organic matter
in urban to suburban reaches. The processes governing the transport,
deposition, and degradation of palynofacies in the terrestrial system
and their fate by natural and anthropogenic agents, needs to be
established (Tyson, 1995; Medeanic and Silva, 2010; Mendonça Filho et
al., 2011a; Hoaen, 2000).

\textbf{STUDY AREA}

The Gomati River, a tributary of the Ganga River, originates from the
swampy forested area located near the south of the Himalayan foothills
near the MadhoTanda in Pilibhit district of Uttar Pradesh, India and
flows in the Ganga Alluvial Plain, which is of Pleistocene--Holocene
origin and an underground fed channel (Kumar and Singh, 1978). The
channel forms an elongate basin, trending in the NW-SE direction. The
regions exhibits three distinct geomorphic surfaces with their
characteristic features, namely, the Upland Terrace Surface
(T\textsubscript{2}) or Upland Interfluve, River Valley Terrace Surface
(T\textsubscript{1}), and Active Flood Plain Surface
(T\textsubscript{0}) (Figure 1). The upland interfluve surface is also
described as Older Alluvium or Bangar and marks the high surface with a
variety of alluvial features, namely bhur ridges, abandoned channels,
lakes, ponds, and patches of alkaline soils (Singh, 1996) exhibiting
kilometer-scale undulations of high and low grounds. The Gomati Basin
experiences a sub-humid, sub-tropical climate within a vast monsoon
regime of the Ganga Plain.

The Lucknow district occupies the central part of Ganga plain and is
bounded longitudinally 80\textsuperscript{°} 32'E --
81\textsuperscript{°} 15'E and latitudinally 26\textsuperscript{°} 30'N
- 27\textsuperscript{°} 10'N which encompasses the Gomati River Basin
(Singh, 1996). The district stands at an elevation of
\textasciitilde{}123 m above sea level and covering an area of
\textasciitilde{}2,528 sq. km. The Gomati River exhibits distorted
meandering suggestive of past neo-tectonic activity (Singh, 1996; Thakur
et al., 2009) and comprise more than 630 m thick alluvial deposits of
Quaternary age comprising Newer Alluvium (T\textsubscript{0} and
T\textsubscript{1} surfaces) i.e. active channels, younger and older
flood plain deposited during upper Pleistocene to recent age (Singh
1996; Singh 2001; Srivastava \emph{et al.} 2003a), and Older Alluvium
(T\textsubscript{2}). The mean annual precipitation in the Lucknow
district falls between isohyets of 100 cm and 86 cm (Kant, 2018). Due to
the Gomati River's water supply, the region is able to sustain a sizable
urban population, while the sub-urban areas are predominately
agricultural. The Gomati River basin comprises huge repositories of
archaeological sites in the middle Ganga Plain (Upadhyay, 2019) but the
biotic studies from these sites are not known, and hence the
palynofacies studies in the modern-day sediments are an aid to address
the palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate. To investigate the prevalence
and fate of palynofacies in relation to their anthropogenic and natural
manifestations, 13 surface sediment samples from the Gomati River's
flood plain in the Lucknow district were analyzed (Figure 2).

\textbf{METHODOLOGY}

\textbf{Palynofacies}

In order to remove the carbonates from the sediments and prepare the
palynofacies, a 10 gm sample was treated with 10\% HCl. Following three
to four rounds of washing with distilled water, the residual material
was treated with a 40\% HF solution to dissolve the silicates. After
thoroughly washing and sieving the samples using a 20-micron sieve,
polyvinyl alcohol was used to produce strewn slides, which were
subsequently mounted with Canada balsam (Combaz, 1964; Traverse, 1994;
Tyson, 1995; Batten, 1996) and scanned under an Olympus BH-2 microscope
and photographs captured with a DP-25 camera on 200X/400X/1000X. The
palynofacies recovered were grouped into three broad categories: opaque
phytoclasts (degraded and charcoal organic matter (OM), degraded brown
OM, Structured OM), palynomorphs (viz., pollen/spore, algal/fungal
remains, grass remains, Zoomorphs) and amorphous OM using the published
literature (Traverse, 1994; Tyson, 1995; Sebag et al., 2006; Prasad et
al., 2013; Sridhar et al., 2020). Along with the palynofacies, ratio of
various palynofacies such as degraded charcoal (Dc), burnt charcoal
(Bc), cuticle (C), and tracheid (T) have been carried on the frequency
data to provide better insight into the transport and degradation of
organic matter.

\textbf{Grain size/ Sediment Texture}

The sediment texture/ grain size distribution pattern of sediment is a
potential indicator for discharge energy and environmental
characteristic (Visher, 1969; Friedman 1961, 1979; Glaister \& Nelson,
1974; Sun et al., 2002). For the grain size analysis, 1 gm of samples
was treated with 10\% HCl and 30\%
H\textsubscript{2}O\textsubscript{2}to remove the carbonates and organic
matter, and other soluble salts. The samples were thereafter dispersed
with an ultrasonic oscillator for 10 min after mixing with a dispersant
solution ((Na\textsubscript{2}PO\textsubscript{3})\textsubscript{6})
(Yanhong et al., 2006). The grain size analysis was done on a laser
particle size analyzer (LS 13 320) by Beckman Coulter with a size range
of 0.004 - 2000\selectlanguage{greek}µ\selectlanguage{english}m. The grain size data was analyzed in the GRADISTAT
program using the Folk and Ward method in the phi (\selectlanguage{greek}φ\selectlanguage{english}) scale. The
GRADISTAT provides a versatile way of representing standard and
non-standard data giving a range of graphical and statistical outputs
like mean (\selectlanguage{greek}φ\selectlanguage{english}), sorting (\selectlanguage{greek}φ\selectlanguage{english}), skewness (\selectlanguage{greek}φ\selectlanguage{english}) and kurtosis (\selectlanguage{greek}φ\selectlanguage{english}), and ternary
plots (Folk and Ward, 1957; Blott and Pye, 2001).

\textbf{Statistical Analysis}

Cluster analysis and multivariate statistical studies have been used to
classify the groupings of phytoclasts, palynomorphs, and Amorphous OM
according to dominance and sub-dominance in order to elaborate the
palynofacies and sediment texture (Grimm, 1987, 1990; Legendre \&
Legendre, 2012). The palynofacies were counted until 400-600
observations were made and converted into percentages; thereafter CONISS
cluster analysis was performed to identify different zones based on the
particulate organic matter distribution in TILIA \emph{ver.} 1.7. Among
the multivariate analyses, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was
performed using CANOCO 5.0. The CONISS was performed to create discrete
group linkages based on their similarity while ordination analysis using
PCA has been used for validating the variables contributing to the
typical relationship between varying entities mainly between
palynofacies and grain size (Legendre \& Legendre, 2012). PCA is a
multivariate statistical technique using an orthogonal transformation
method to obtain a set of correlated variables into a set of orthogonal,
uncorrelated axes called principal components (James \& McCulloch, 1990;
Legendre \& Legendre, 1998; Robertson et al., 2001; Gotelli \& Ellison,
2004). The application of PCA for the analysis of community composition
data or gradient analysis is greatly acknowledged (\selectlanguage{polish}Š\selectlanguage{english}milauer \& Lep\selectlanguage{polish}š,
\selectlanguage{english}2014). It practically allows plant community ecology to relate the
abundance of various components to diverse environmental gradients that
are key controlling factors such as temperature, water availability,
light, and sediment texture, or their closely correlated representatives
(\selectlanguage{polish}Š\selectlanguage{english}milauer \& Lep\selectlanguage{polish}š \selectlanguage{english}2014).

\textbf{RESULTS}

\textbf{Palynofacies - Grain size}

The palynofacies data of the Gomati River flood plain in the Lucknow
district is shown in Table 1. The ratio of degraded charcoal (Dc), burnt
charcoal (Bc), cuticle (C), and tracheid (T) has also been shown in
Table 2. Based on the CONISS cluster analysis four zones were identified
for the palynofacies and grain size data (Figure 3):

\textbf{Zone -- I (GR-12 -- GR-13):-} In this zone, the palynofacies are
represented chiefly by an abundance of phytoclasts mainly, opaque
phytoclast (degraded and burnt charcoal) ranging 37\% to 40\%, and
degraded brown organic matter (OM) (18\% to 21\%). The other
palynofacies components i.e. palynomorphs comprise fungal spores (12\%
to 15\%) while filamentous algae vary from 9\% to 10\%. The structured
OM and animal remains are represented below 5\%. Amorphous OM varies by
\textasciitilde{}15\% (Table 1, Figure 3). The ratio of degraded
charcoal (Dc), burnt charcoal (Bc), cuticle (C), and tracheid (T) has
also been carried on the raw counts to ascertain the transport and
degradation of organic matter. A representative variety of non-pollen
palynomorphs such as \emph{Brachydesmiella} , and \emph{Glomus} along
with fungal mycelium, and stellate trichome are recorded in the present
zone. The Dc/Bc in this zone varies from 1.05 to 0.71 while the C/T
varies from 0.41 to 0.31 (Table 2, Figure 4).

The grain size data shows high silt content ranging from 71\% to 74\%,
however, the greater fraction of the silt is mainly comprised of fine
silt. The sand percent ranges from 20\% to 21\%. The sand fraction is
composed of very fine sand with low percent of fine to medium sand. The
clay content in this zone varies from 4\% to 8\% (Table 1). The mean
grain size in phi unit is 3.8, sorting 1.0 - 1.3, skewness (-0.253 to
-0.418), and kurtosis (0.9 - 1.48).

\textbf{Zone -- II (GR-8 -- GR-11):-} The characteristic palynofacies
comprise a high percentage of opaque phytoclast (degraded and burnt
charcoal) varying 22\% to 41\% with degraded brown OM (28\% to 48\%).
Fungal spores varies from 4\% to 14\%, and filamentous algae 5\% - 7\%.
Structured OM, animal remains, and Cyanobacteria vary by less than 5\%.
Amorphous OM varies 10\% to 20\% (Table 1, Figure 3). The ratio of Dc/Bc
varies from 5 to 3 whereas the C/T ranges from 0.9 to 2 (Table 2, Figure
4). Fungal mycelium, oxidized \emph{Tilletia} spore, \emph{Spirogyra}
,\emph{Helicoon} , \emph{Glomus} are among the few fungal remains
recorded in this zone.

The clay varies from 2.7\% to 4.5\% while the silt varies from 51\% to
67\% with high percent of fine to medium silt (Table 1, Figure 3). The
total sand varies from 30\% to 46\% in this zone with high contribution
of very fine sand followed by fine and medium sand. The mean grain size
ranges 3.12 to 3.61 phi units, the sorting varies 1.20 to 1.45. The
skewness varies -0.08 to -0.34 while the kurtosis ranges 0.84 to 1.04
phi units (Figure 5 a-d). The grain size shows unimodal to bimodal
texture, poorly sorted with symmetrical to very coarse skewed, and
platykurtic to mesokurtic (Folk and Ward 1957; Blott and Pye 2001).

\textbf{Zone -- III (G4 -- G7):-} The zone is characterized by a high
percentage of degraded brown OM, filamentous algae, and opaque
phytoclast (degraded and burnt charcoal). The degraded brown OM varies
from 27\% to 44\% while the filamentous algae (12\% to 30\%) and opaque
phytoclast (2\% to 19\%). Fungal spores vary from 6\% to 15\% in this
zone. Structured OM, thecamoebians, pollen/ spore, cyanobacteria, and
animal remains account for less than 5\%. Amorphous OM ranges from 15\%
to 20\% (Table 1, Figure 3). The ratio of Dc/Bc varies higher from
earlier zones and ranges 3 to 65 while the C/T ranges from 0.59 to 1.22
(Table 2, Figure 4). Among the fungal remains the zone comprises colony
of Smut fungi, mycelium remains, etc.

This zone characterizes high silt percent (55\% to 69\%). The silt
proportion comprises a high percentage of fine to medium silt than
coarse silt. The sand percent varies from 26\% to 40\% and it is
recorded that the very fine sand contribute higher than fine to medium
and coarse sand. The clay fraction is restricted with 5 percent in the
present zone (Table 1, Figure 3). The mean varies 3.2 to 3.6 with
sorting 1.0 to 1.4 phi units. The samples are negatively skewed with
-0.21 to -0.4 while the kurtosis vary from 0.78 to 0.87 phi units
(Figure 5 a-d). In this zone, the grains are unimodal to bimodal, poorly
sorted, coarse to very coarse skewed, and platykurtic to mesokurtic
(Folk and Ward 1957; Blott and Pye 2001).

\textbf{Zone -- IV (GR-1 -- GR-3):-} This zone is characterized by a
high percent of degraded brown, filamentous algae, and opaque
phytoclast. The degraded brown OM varies from 30\% to 39\%, the
filamentous algae from 16\% to 17\%, and opaque phytoclast from 9\% to
21\%. The fungal spores range from 6\% to 19\%. The structured OM is
less than 5\% in this zone. The amorphous OM varies from 10\% to 20\%.
The oxidized land plant tissue, thecamoebians, pollen/ spore,
cyanobacteria, and animals remain to account for less than 5\% (Table 1,
Figure 3). In this zone also the ratio of Dc/Bc varies from 1.5.-6.7
while the C/T has a broader range from 0.31 to 1.36 (Table 2, Figure 4).
This zone records pollen of \emph{Croton} , charcoal
remains,\emph{Glomus} , \emph{Acacia} pollen, \emph{Periconia
macrospinosa} , Trilete spore, \emph{Helminthosporium} , and, Zoomorphs.

This zone comprises equivalent sand and silt percentages. The silt
content varies from 48\% to 55\% while the sand percent ranges from 40\%
to 48\%. The medium and coarse silt vary in similar proportions in this
zone. The sand content varies from 41\% to 48\% with high percent of
very fine sand followed by fine sand, medium and coasre sand
respectively. The clay percent is limited to 4\% only (Table 1, Figure
3). The mean grain size ranges 3.1 to 3.2 with sorting 1.21 to 1.39 phi
units. The skewness varies -0.15 to 0.036 and kurtosis 0.756 to 0.833
phi units (Figure 5 a-d). The samples show unimodal to bimodal sediment
character, poor sorted, symmetrical to coarse skewness, and platykurtic
as per Gradistat statistical inferences (Folk and Ward 1957; Blott and
Pye 2001).

\textbf{Statistical analysis}

The CONISS cluster analysis allows the zoning of the different units of
palynofacies in the different samples of the Gomati River flood plain.
However, to ascertain the extent of the role of grain size in
palynofacies, coordination statistics Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
was performed on grain size and palynofacies. The PCA technique is
widely used by ecologists and environmentalists to convert large data
sets into condensed principal components of representative forms in
two-dimensional presentation (Legendre and Legendre, 1998).

The statistical Response data in the present study are compositional and
have a gradient of 1.0 standard deviation. According to the CANOCO
Advisor linear method (PCA) is recommended (Legendre and Legendre,
1998). In the present study, based on the PCA technique, it can be
ascertained that the relation between palynofacies and grain size
accounted for 84.62\% of the four principal components, however, the two
principal components PC1 and PC2 accounted for 62\% of the total
variance. The Pseudo-canonical correlation corresponds to
\textasciitilde{}81.48\% for PC1 and PC2. The study shows that PC1 is
mainly correlated with medium silt and fine sand (left to the right side
of Fig. 6) where the degraded brown OM, structured OM, oxidized land
plant remains and cyanobacteria tend to have dominance or enhanced
percentage, and with coarse sand (in opposite direction) where only
Black oxidized OM follow the direction of probability. In PC1 the fine
silt and medium silt are relatively short and have less impact on the
distribution of the palynofacies. Similarly, for PC2 it can be observed
that Pollen/spore, Amorphous OM, and filamentous algae go in the same
direction as very fine sand. This explains how the palynofacies are in
synchronization with very fine sand in increasing probability as also
observed by the association of palynofacies and grain size (Tyson,
1993). Similar to clay sediments, the fungal remains, animal remains,
and scolecodonts go in hand-to-hand. A negative correlation among the
different palynofacies can be observed such as animal remains with
pollen/spore, filamentous algae, and Thecamoebians. The black oxidized
OM also shows a negative correlation with degraded brown OM, structured
OM, and oxidized land plants.

\textbf{DISCUSSION}

\textbf{Zone -- I (GR-12 -- GR-13) -Urban:-} The present zone is located
between Nadwa and Hanuman Setu. The variation of opaque phytoclast and
degraded brown organic matter with fungal spores and filamentous algae
suggests that the degradation is moderate to high in this zone with low
oxygenation state in the sediment. The various palynofacies association
has been captured and is depicted in Plate-1. The grain distribution
shows very fine sand to silty sediment deposits in this zone of Gomati
River indicating very low energy conditions with a unimodal depositional
system in the flow regime. The statistical inference from the grain size
shows that the grain are unimodal with poor sorting, negatively skewed
(-0.253 and -0.418) in coarse to very coarse owing to very fine sand
category, while the kurtosis suggest leptokurtic and mesokurtic
statistics (Folk and Ward 1957; Blott and Pye 2001). The zone is
identified with poor winnowing and variable fluvial energy conditions
(Folk and Ward, 1957; Friedman 1967; Kanahaiya et al., 2016; Padhi et
al., 2017, Kholia et al., 2021). The present zone is influenced by high
levels of anthropogenic activity and can be held responsible for the
degradation of particulate organic matter (Xenopoulos et al., 2021).
Recently it has been globally recognized that human activities can
modify the organic matter either in dissolved or particulate form. These
can be adhered to the natural system due to land-use change, climate
change, nutrient pollution, browning, wildfires, etc (Xenopoulos et al.,
2021). The high opaque phytoclast percent vary effectively with slight
enhancement of coarser grain fraction and is reflected in PCA biplot
(Figure 6). As the river energy condition in the mature stage is low in
the Gomati River, the winnowing of sediments by channel action in the
flow regime with changeable energy conditions may affect the
palynofacies is least anticipated. Alternatively, due to low water
levels after the southwest (SW) monsoon allows high fertile sediments
for agriculture practice in these parts of flood plains. The continous
use of the agriculture practice since long is also one of the reasons
for deterioration of palynofacies. The ratio of degraded charcoal (Dc)
to burnt charcoal (Bc) ranges between 1.05-0.71 suggesting burning
activity along the river channel as an evidence of human activity
(Xenopoulos et al., 2021). The occurrence of opaque phytoclast (degraded
or burnt) is a result of either prolonged transportation or natural/
anthropogenic fires (Mendon\selectlanguage{ngerman}ça Filho et al., 2011a). High encroachment of
human population along the rivers is evidenced world wide and this is
also a typical situation in and around the Lucknow city. Furthermore,
the ratio of the cuticle (C) to tracheid (T) is 0.41-0.31 representing
low vegetation in the surrounding and the present status of tracheids
and cuticles may be transported by the channel as the river is
perennial. Palynofacies and grain size analyses suggest that the
moderate to high degradation due to anthropogenic reasons along the
river banks in the urban reaches and organic matter deterioration due to
development projects and encroachment on the flood plain of the Gomati
River cannot be ignored. The changes in the organic matter association
is also a factor of the dissolved organic matter that is subjected to
the anthropogenic responses along the river channel and affects the
flood plains to a great extent (Xenopoulos et al., 2021).

\textbf{Zone -- II (GR-8 -- GR-11) - Urban Fringe:-} This zone lies
between Gaughat to Gaughat3. The variation of terrestrial organic matter
is primarily controlled by degraded brown OM and opaque phtoclast and
variable percentages of amorphous OM and \emph{Mycelium} fungal hyphae.
The details of the palynofacies association for the shown in Plate-2.
The opaque phytoclast comprise trees/ woody material being transported
onto the flood plains of the Gomati River during precipitation time.
Also, the portion of opaque phytoclast shows angular to sub-angular
edges suggesting low distance transport of phytoclast from nearby
source. It is also noteworthy that the AOM and fungal remains show an
appreciable variation reflecting slowly flowing/ near stagnant
conditions and high degradation of organic matter as a consequence of
post-deposition in the flood plains. The Dc/Bc ratio varies between 3-5
indicating higher degraded opaque phytoclast in the river bank as a
result of post burial activity of palynofacies matter. The C/T ratio
varies 0.9-2 showing high leafy remains i.e. cuticular remains and also
suggest proximal region of source area. The high degradation of
palynofacies may also be addressed to human practices such as
agriculture along the flood banks. This zone also experiences seasonal
vegetation of creeping plants and hence records of high cuticles may be
a plausible explanation. The rise in land acquisition along the river is
also be a probable reason for deteriorating palynofacies in this
transitional part of urban suburbs. The charcoal particles have also
been recorded in coarse-grained, high energy, organic-poor sediments
such as distributary channel sands and point bars in the flood plains
(Denison and Fowler, 1980; Parry et al., 1981; Tyson, 1995; Mendonça
Filho et al., 2011a). The grain size distribution shows both silt and
sand content in vaiable proportions indicating a bimodal system and
suggests varying energy conditions. The negative skewness suggest fine
grained deposition alongwith poor sorting, and mesokurtic and
platykurtic nature of sediments in the flood plain. The incision in the
channel flow has also been recognised in the Gomati channel by Thakur et
al., (2009). The plausible explanation of palynofacies and grain size
relatio in context to brown degraded OM and opaque phytoclast is also
ascertained using the PCA analysis in PC1 and PC2 (Figure 6).

\textbf{Zone -- III (GR-4 -- GR-7) - Urban Fringe to Sub-urban:-} The
localities Raitha to Ghaila marks this zone. In this zone, terrestrial
organic matter is marked by a high percentage of degraded brown OM,
filamentous algae, and opaque phytoclast with a small percentage of AOM
that suggests low energy of the river. In order to define the fate of
the palynofacies the images are captured and shown in Plate-3. Here,
different palynomorphs like thecamoebians, fungal spores, and
cyanobacterial remains are also recorded which indicates that this zone
is low polluted and disturbed that prevented oxidation of palynofacies
matter and allowed preservation in finely deposited silt and sand
fraction. Based on the grain size distribution low to moderate energy
conditions is interpreted. Here it can also be observed that the channel
is nearly straight with minimal meandering. The negative skewness
suggests fine grained sediment with platykurtic that implies mixing of
sediment from two sources with poor sorting in this zone that can be
attributed to channel sediments and local weathering. The zone exhibits
a deposition where the natural resources are less affected by the
anthropogenic activities. The Dc/Bc ratio varies between 3.05 to 6.5
suggesting high opaque phytoclast(degraded) due to the long
transportation of plant material (Mendonça Filho et al., 2011a). The C/T
ratio varies from 0.59 to 1.22 showing high tracheid record indicating
the prevalence of woody material. The present finding agrees with the
silt and very fine sand grain texture with degraded brown OM,
pollen/spore, Thecamoebians, cyanobacteria, and filamentous algae
explaining the highest variability in PC1 and PC2 (Figure 6). The
present association of the phytoclasts is also influenced by
hydrodynamic equivalence effects. Being relatively large and dense
organic particles, woody debris mainly comprised of degraded brown is
often concentrated in sediments rich in coarse silt and/or very fine
sand (Tyson, 1993).

\textbf{Zone -- IV (GR-1 -- GR-3) - Sub-urban:-} This zone comprises the
area between Atariya to Chandrika Devi. The characteristic palynofacies
component comprises high proportions of the degraded brown OM followed
by filamentous algae and variable proportions of opaque phytoclasts,
fungal remains, and other organic matter. The major palynofacies
association are shown in Plate -4 to explain the sub-urban region. The
variable degree of degraded brown OM, filamentous algae and AOM points
to both prolong and local transportation suggesting palynofacies
deposition from autochthonous or allochthonous sources. This can be
explained by the angular to sub-angular and sub-rounded opaque
phytoclast. It is also noted that the high content of filamentous algae
and fungal/ algal remains (\emph{Glomus} sp. and \emph{Alternaria} sp.)
points towards clear and standing water with a low velocity of the
channel and local erosion (Quamar, 2015; Sridhar et al., 2020). The
variation in the AOM shows a certain degree of organic matter
degradation by natural processes during transport by mechanical
breakdown and further by post-deposition burial (Tyson, 1995). The grain
size show negative and positive skewness suggesting fine and coarse
grained sediments that are poorly sorted with platykurtic reflecting the
mixing of sediment source. The palynofacies findings also go in
hand-to-hand with the grain size distribution and it can be effectively
postulated that the variability in palynofacies and grain size
representing a bimodal system of deposition or a mixed environmental
setting. The Dc/Bc ratio is of higher value i.e. 6.7-5.6 advocate major
degraded charcoal deposit, at the same time, C/T ratio ranges between
0.31-1.36 showing equable recurrence of cuticle and tracheids propose
high vegetation within the proximity. The association ofdegraded brown
OM, filamentous algae, and AOM with fine to medium silt and fine sand is
in aggreable reference in PC1 and PC2 (figure 6).

To depict the distribution and destiny of palynofacies in urban and
sub-urban reaches, the various zones outlined above have also been
displayed in ArcGIS to decode the spatial heterogeneity in the Gomati
River flood plain in Lucknow district (Figure 7). The spatial variation
shows that, in comparison to the sub-urban reaches, variability is
developing more quickly throughout the urban regime. It might be argued
that the increasing rate of urbanisation in the periphery areas is
accelerating the degradation of sedimentary organic matter through
development and concretization.

\textbf{Visual model of present day landform elaborating vegetation with
settlement}

A visual model has been created to help explain the role of the modern
environment in urban to sub-urban reaches of a meandering river like the
Gomati in India (Figure 8). The model clearly shows that the northern
sub-urban area has clearly defined vegetation along the river flood
plain and agriculture extends far from the main channel. As a result,
the palynofacies associations primarily represent high levels of
degraded brown OM and low levels of opaque phytoclasts of woody remains
that were once part of higher plants. Low tree vegetation and higher
seasonal plants surround the flood plain when travelling from the urban
fringe to the sub-urban part. The majority of the flood plain has been
taken over by agricultural activities. Near the flood plain, there is a
concentration of people living in urban peripheral areas and
agricultural land is also abundant. This section demonstrates high
opaque phytoclasts with charcoal burnt remnants as proof of increased
human activity and agro-pastoral activity close to the river. In the
urban area, where the river channel is also occupied by human dwellings,
the high encroachment is readily visible. The prevalence of opaque
phytoclasts (burnt charcoal) and fungi makes it clear that human
activities like burning human remains and trash disposal operations
played a significant role in the meandering channel as a whole.

\textbf{Synthesis of modern landscape and biogeomorphology to
reconstruct past settlements}

To comprehend the historical demographic shifts, a thorough analysis of
the current environment is necessary. The current landscape of surface
manifestations aids in gathering data on changes brought about by
anthropogenic and natural forces, as well as quantitative and
qualitative approximations. A region's biogeomorphology can be seen in
the anticipation of various proxies in the contemporary landscape, which
is susceptible to the variety and efforts of modern natural and
human-induced changes. These landscapes have undergone tremendous
changes in the past due to both natural and human actions, ever since
the beginning of human activities. The investigation of palynofacies and
grain size is a novel approach used to explain what happens to organic
matter in various natural systems, such as rivers and lakes, that are
constantly being changed by anthropogenic and natural forces, including
erosive forces, transportation, agriculture, aquaculture, washerman
practises, fishing, religious rituals, and encroachment on river banks.
As the landform and landuse integrate with the vegetation around the
river, their likelihood of survival is higher distant from the main
channel and closer to it and thus the palynofacies fate correspond.
Desiccation during periods of low flow and erosion-induced undercutting
and uprooting during periods of flooding are likely causes of
disappearance, weathering, degradation of palynofacies (palynomorphs to
opaque phytoclats and AOM), and changes in biogeomorphology are in
addition to recognize the fate of organic matter. As a result, the
current variations in palynofacies and grain size can be extrapolated
from core sediments to reveal historical natural and human-caused
changes in the landform of the flood plain during the river's meandering
stage.

\textbf{Conclusions}

Based on the data interpretation using proxies \emph{viz} . palynofacies
and grain size distribution, the following conclusions are drawn:-

\begin{enumerate}
\tightlist
\item
  The grain size shows unimodal to bimodal distribution with negative
  skewness and platykurtic shows varying degree of mixing along with
  fine grained material in the entire traverse of flood plain in the
  Gomati River, Lucknow, India.
\item
  The fate of the palynofacies in the sediments is witnessed and
  recorded in the findings of sub-urban, urban fringe, and urban flood
  plains in the Gomati River with various proportions of phytoclasts,
  palynomorphs, and amorphous organic matter.
\item
  We were able to distinguish the underlying processes of degradation
  and deterioration of palynofacies in urban and sub-urban reaches of
  flood plain deposits, which are caused either by natural or
  anthropogenic sources, based on the ratio of degraded charcoal, burnt
  charcoal, cuticle, and tracheid.
\item
  In archaeological and archaeobotanical investigations, the urban,
  urban fringe, and sub-urban coupling of palynofacies and grain size
  can be used to develop an understanding of human-vegetation
  connections in unfossiliferous layers.
\item
  While palynofacies of the Lucknow district's Gomati River are highly
  variable and reflect the role of flow regime, channel pattern, and
  biomass that allow selective preference and differential settling of
  organic matter, other processes such as wind, tide, waves, flow
  conditions, hydrodynamic changes, monsoon (ISM), burial efficiency,
  preservation, and taphonomy are also likely to be at play.
\end{enumerate}

\textbf{Acknowledgments}

The authors are thankful to the Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeosciences, Lucknow, India, for providing infrastructural facilities
to carry out the present study. Thanks are due to Head, CAS in Geology,
University of Lucknow, Lucknow for his support for the present research
work. The authors duly acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for the
valuable suggestions and corrections. The authors are thankful to Dr.
Firoze Quamar for his indespensible suggestions. The authors are
thankful to Dr. William Ray for his indespensible suggestions.This is
the reference number as BSIP contribution No. 88/2020-2021.



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  dissolved organic matter composition in freshwater: relevance for the
  Earth's biogeochemistry, \emph{Biogeochemistry} , 1--26,
  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-021-00753-3.
\item
  Yanhong, W., Lucke, A., Zhangdong, J., Sumin, W., Schleser, G. H.,
  Battarbee, R. W., Weilan, X. (2006). Holocene climate development on
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  Lake.\emph{Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology} ,
  234(2-4), 328--340.
\end{enumerate}



\textbf{Figure Captions}

Figure 1 - Schematic geomorphic map of the Ganga Plain showing regional
geomorphic surfaces of Ganga Plain (after Singh 1996).

Figure 2 - Sample location of the sediment inculcating the land use/
land cover data within 1 km buffer of Gomti River in Lucknow district.

Figure 3 - Range chart of palynofacies and grain size data and CONISS
cluster analysis for zonal assignment.

Figure 4 - Distribution graph of degraded charcoal (Dc), burnt charcoal
(Bc), cuticle (C) , tracheid (T) and ratios of Dc/Bc and C/T for
differentiation of processes in urban to sub-urban reaches.

Figure 5- Grain size statistics delineated using Gradistat (in phi
scale)

Figure 6 - Principal component analysis (PCA) to establish the
relationship between palynofacies and grain size of the Gomati River
flood plain

Figure 7 - Pie-chart of the spatial map showing the palynofacies
variability to differentiate the various regimes of urban and sub-urban
locations.

Figure 8 - Visual model of present day landform elaborating vegetation
and settlement from urban to sub-urban reaches

\textbf{Table Captions}

Table 1 - Palynofacies and grain size distribution (percentage) of
Gomati River, Lucknow district, India

Table 2: Data and Ratio of Degraded charcoal, burnt charcoal, Cuticle,
and Tracheid

\textbf{Description of Plates}

\textbf{Plate:1}

1. Structured Organic Matter (OM), (Tracheid) 2. Non-pollen
palynomorphs, 3, 10\&11. Opaque phytoclast 4. Fungal mycelium 5\&8.
Degraded OM, 6\&7. Stellate trichome, 9. SOM (Cuticle)
12.\emph{Brachydesmiella} ,17. \emph{Glomus} , 13. Oxidised Grass
tissue, 14\&16. Amorphous OM, 15. Insect wing, 18. Scolecodont

\textbf{Plate:2}

1. Degraded OM, 2. Oxidised Tilletia spore, 3. \emph{Spirogyra} , 4\&13.
Fungal mycelium, 5\&14. Tracheid 6. AOM, 7\&11. Structured OM (SOM), 8.
Oxidised Spore, 9. \emph{Helicoon} , 10. \emph{Glomus} , 12. Oxidised
Grass remain

\textbf{Plate:3}

1\&8. Unidentified spore, 2,3,6\&11. Structured OM (Cuticle), 4\&13.
Colony of Smut fungi, 5.Scolecodont, 7,9\&10. Charcoal, 12. Opaque
phytoclast, 14. Fungal mycelium.

\textbf{Plate:4}

1.Opaque phytoclast, 2. Fungal mycelium, 3. Oxidised grass tissue,
4,13\&15. SOM (Cuticle), 5\&10. Poaceae pollen, 6. pollen
of\emph{Croton} , 7. Charcoal, 8\&16. \emph{Glomus}
,9.\emph{Acacia}pollen, 11.\emph{Periconia macrospinosa} ,
12.\emph{Trilete} spore, 14.\emph{Helminthosporium} , 17. Zoo remains.\selectlanguage{english}
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\textbf{Hosted file}

\verb`Table -1.doc`  available at \url{https://authorea.com/users/516343/articles/591259-fate-of-palynofacies-sedimentary-organic-matter-in-suburban-and-urban-flood-plains-of-gomati-river-lucknow-india}

\textbf{Hosted file}

\verb`Table-2.doc`  available at \url{https://authorea.com/users/516343/articles/591259-fate-of-palynofacies-sedimentary-organic-matter-in-suburban-and-urban-flood-plains-of-gomati-river-lucknow-india}

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