Measures
Psychosocial functioning was assessed using the Behavior Assessment System for Children- 2nd or 3rdeditions (BASC)- Parent form.46,47 The BASC is a standardized written measure with age-based norms that assesses adaptive and problem behaviors. There are three forms: preschool (ages 2 through 5), child (ages 6 through 11), and adolescent (ages 12 through 21). The BASC produces several specific clinical scales, a Behavioral Symptoms Index that assesses the degree of overall problem behaviors, and an Adaptive Skills score that assesses skills such as activities of daily living and social skills. Not all clinical scales are produced for the three forms of the test. All scores are T-scores (Mean = 50; standard deviation [S.D.] = 10), where higher scores indicate greater problems. All results are presented in the same direction; the results of the Adaptive Skills scales, where a lower score typically indicates greater problems, were transformed for the present analyses to be consistent across measures.
Executive functioning was assessed using the BRIEF- 1st or 2nd editions, a standardized written parent report measure with age-based norms.31,32 The BRIEF assesses executive functions or self-regulation in everyday life. There are three forms: preschool (ages 2 through 5), child and adolescent (ages 5 through 18), and adult (ages 18+). The BRIEF produces several specific clinical scales as well as two Index scores: Behavioral Regulation and Metacognition that together yield the Global Executive Composite. The BRIEF produces T-scores (Mean = 50; S.D. = 10), where higher T-scores reflect greater problems. Not all clinical scales are produced for the three forms of the test.