Provisioning (crop production, irrigation water, household/livestock water, fodder or grazing grass, fuelwood or poles or timber; Regulatory (landscape beauty, wildlife and pollinator habitat, reduction in weeds); cultural (religious and cultural sites); economic (income, costs, time and energy from or on farm and availability of jobs and businesses); tenure (access to communal land).
Intra-gender comparison for each of the ES revealed divergence in perceptions between men and women on access to land and availability of water for household and livestock, an indication of differences in lived experiences, aspirations and opinions of land degradation, restoration, and their valuation of these ES (Table 2). However, there is convergence in their rating of availability of water for irrigation and fodder or grazing grass, condition of religious and cultural sites and availability of jobs and business opportunities, an indication of shared experiences among these ES. We see that on average, restoration activities tend to lower women’s access to communal land, especially in Amhara. Women of SNNP, compared to their husbands, perceive increased water availability for household and livestock use and increased income from farming but relatively lower rating of costs and expenditures on the farm following restoration.
Table 2 Mean ratings and correlations of perceptions of restoration impacts among paired husband and wife ES raters