2.2 Sampling Sites
We identified five representative study sites across the national park. The sampling blocks were Sundarijal, Shivapuri, Gurjebhanjyang, Nagarjun, and Manichud areas within the SNNP. Each site was sampled in three elevation transects based on forest type; lower transect occurred between 1500 m–1700 m, middle transect at 1800 m–1900 m, and upper transect at 2000 m–2700 m. In each elevation, 25 line transects each of 100 m X 5 m with 100 m inter transect distance was fixed. Four types of habitats; forest trail (FT), grassland (GL), trails of the managed habitat (MH) and the open trail of the forest (OT), that fall under transect were surveyed. Forest habitat is denoted as the forest with canopy coverage of more than 70% with a walking trail of 15 m width. Grassland habitat is an herb–dominated in the transect with sparsely located trees. Open trail habitat of the forest meant the area with no tree coverage within 15 m width on either side of survey transect. The open trail of managed habitat is the transect along walking trail of managed habitat with no canopy tree within 15 m width of the trail. Managed habitat incorporates the buffer zone area of the National Park. The area is a human settlement with cultivated lands. The major crops cultivated during spring are Mustard and coriander while mustard, buckwheat, balsam apple, and squash are in autumn.