Measures
At the time of evaluation, all participants completed a neurocognitive
battery with age-appropriate standardized measures. Parent-, teacher-,
and self-report norm-referenced rating measures were also provided, as
appropriate. Relevant variables for the present study are delineated in
Table 2. Participant peer relations and social skills were assessed
using the Conners 3 and BASC-3 rating forms, respectively. The Peer
Relations scale provides an estimate of the quality of friendships
maintained by the child and the extent to which the child appears to be
accepted by his or her peer group.29 As a separate
measure of social functioning, the BASC-3 Social Skills scale provides
an estimate of a child’s ability to interact successfully with peers and
adults in the home, school, and community settings.30Additionally, the following cognitive variables were assessed:
processing speed, executive functioning, verbal learning, verbal memory,
sustained attention, and overall intellectual functioning. Several
standardized measures were administered to assess different aspects of
executive functioning, including cognitive flexibility and inhibition.
These measures were combined into an executive function composite (see
Table 2). Standardized scores (standard score, T-scores, scaled scores,
z-scores) were computed using age norms for all measures. Of note, all
evaluations were conducted prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic;
therefore, standardized administration procedures and childhood social
opportunities were not impacted by changes in procedures and enhanced
safety precautions resulting from the pandemic.