References
Albacete A., Martínez-Andújar C., Martínez-Pérez A., Thompson A.J., Dodd, I.C. & Pérez-Alfocea F. (2015). Unravelling rootstock x scion interactions to improve food security. Journal of experimental botany , 66 (8), 2211–2226.
Albuquerque C., Scoffoni C., Brodersen C.R., Buckley T.N., Sack L. & McElrone AJ. (2020). Coordinated decline of leaf hydraulic and stomatal conductances under drought is not linked to leaf xylem embolism for different grapevine cultivars, Journal of Experimental Botany , 71(22), 7286–7300.
An H., Luo F., Wu T., Wang Y., Xu X., Zhang X. & Han Z. (2017). Dwarfing effect of apple rootstocks is intimately associated with low number of fine roots. HortScience horts , 52(4), 503-512.
Arndt S.K. & Wanek W. (2002). Use of decreasing foliar carbon isotope discrimination during water limitation as a carbon tracer to study whole plant carbon allocation. Plant, Cell and Environment , 25, 609–616.
Atkinson C. & Else M. (2001). Understanding how rootstocks dwarf fruit trees. Compact Fruit Tree , 34, 46–49.
Atkinson C.J., Else M.A., Taylor L. & Dover C.J. (2003). Root and stem hydraulic conductivity as determinants of growth potential in grafted trees of apple (Malus Pumila Mill .). J Exp Bot, 54 (385), 1221-1229.
Bchir A., Escalona J.M., Gallé A., Hernández-montes E., Tortosa I., Braham M. & Medrano H. (2016). Carbon isotope discrimination (δ13Δ) as an indicator of vine water status and water use efficiency (WUE): looking for the most representative sample and sampling time. Agricultural Water Management, 167 , 11-20.
Beakbane A.B. & Thompson E.C. (1940). Anatomical studies of stems and roots of hardy fruit trees II. The internal structure of the roots of some vigorous and some dwarfing apple rootstocks, and the correlation of structure with vigour. Journal of pomology and horticultural science , 17(2), 141-149.
Beakbane A.B., & Thompson E.C. (1947). Anatomical studies of stems and roots of hardy fruit trees. Iv. The root structure of some new clonal apple rootstocks budded with cox’s orange pippin. Journal of pomology and horticultural science , 23(4), 206-211.
Bongi G., Palliotti A., Rocchi P. & Roselli G. (1994). Evaluation of WUE in peach grafted on different interspecific hybrid rootstocks. Plant Physiol. Biochem.  32, 149-157.
Buckley TN. (2019). How do stomata respond to water status? New Phytol . 224, 21–36.
Cernusak L.A., Arthur D.J., Pate J.S. & Farquhar G.D. (2003). Water relations link carbon and oxygen isotope discrimination to phloem sap sugar concentration in eucalyptus globulus. Plant Physiol, 131 (4), 1544-1554.
Cernusak LA., Farquhar GD. & Pate JS. (2005). Environmental and physiological controls over the oxygen and carbon isotope composition of the Tasmanian blue gum, Eucalyptus globulus. Tree Physiology, 25, 129–146.
Cernusak LA., Tcherkez G., Keitel C., et al. (2009) Why are non-photosynthetic tissues generally C-13 enriched compared with leaves in C-3 plants? Review and synthesis of current hypotheses. Funct Plant Biol , 36, 199–213.
Cohen S. & Naor A. ( 2002). The effect of three rootstocks on water use, canopy conductance and hydraulic parameters of apple trees and predicting canopy from hydraulic conductance. Plant, Cell and Environment, 25, 17–28.
Cohen S., Tyree M.T., Naor A., Lakso A.N. & Robinson T.L. (2003). Influence of hydraulic properties of rootstocks and the rootstock scion graft on water use and productivity of apple trees. Final report of BARD project no. IS-3284-01.
Cohen S., Naor A., Bennink J., Grava A. & Tyree M.T. (2007). Hydraulic resistance components of mature apple trees on rootstocks of different vigors. J Exp Bot 58, 4213–4224.
Costes E. & García-Villanueva E. (2007). Clarifying the Effects of Dwarfing Rootstock on Vegetative and Reproductive Growth during Tree Development: A Study on Apple Trees. Annals of Botany , 100(2), 347–357.
Czynczyk A. (1981). The effect of interstocks of M.9 and B.9 on the field performance of three apple cultivars. Acta Hortic. 114, 192-197.
Dolgun O., Yildirim A., Polat M., Yıldırım F. & Akin A. (2009). Apple graft formation in relation to growth rate features of rootstocks.African Journal of Agricultural Research, 4 .
Dominguez C.M.R., Santana V.H., Buckley T.N. & Fernández J.E. (2019) Sensitivity of olive leaf turgor to air vapour pressure deficit correlates with diurnal maximum stomatal conductance. Agric For Meteorol , 272–273:156–165.
Fallahi E., Chun I.J., Neilsen G.H. & Colt W.M. (2001). Effects of three rootstocks on photosynthesis, leaf mineral nutrition, and vegetative growth of ‘BC-2 Fuji’ apple trees. J. Plant Nutr ., 24, 827-834.
Farquhar G.D., Ehleringer J.R. & Hubick K.T. (1989). Carbon isotope discrimination and photosynthesis. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 40 (1), 503-537.
Foster T.M., Mcatee P.A., Waite C.N., Boldingh H.L. & Mcghie T.K. (2017). Apple dwarfing rootstocks exhibit an imbalance in carbohydrate allocation and reduced cell growth and metabolism. Horticulture Research, 4 .
Frioni T., Biagioni A., Squeri C., Tombesi S., Gatti M. S. & Poni S. (2020). Grafting cv. Grechetto gentile vines to new M4 rootstock improves leaf gas exchange and water status as compared to commercial 1103P rootstock. Agronomy , 10(708), 1-14.
Galbignani M., Merli M., Magnanini E., Bernizzoni F., Talaverano I., Gatti M., Tombesi S., Palliotti A. & Poni S. (2016). Gas exchange and water—Use efficiency of cv. Sangiovese grafted to rootstocks of varying water—Deficit tolerance. Irrig. Sci , 34, 105–116.
Gjamovski V. & Kiprijanovski M. (2011). Influence of nine dwarfing apple rootstocks on vigour and productivity of apple cultivar ‘Granny Smith’. Scientia Horticulturae, 129(4), 742-746.
Gibberd M.R., Walker R.R., Blackmore D.H., Condon A.G. (2001) Transpiration efficiency and carbon-isotope discrimination of grapevines grown under well-watered conditions in either glasshouse or vineyard.Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 7, 110–117.
Gregory P.J., Atkinson C.J., Bengough A.G., Else M.A., Fernández-fernández F., Harrison R.J. & Schmidt S. (2013). Contributions of roots and rootstocks to sustainable, intensified crop production. J Exp Bot, 64 (5), 1209-1222.
Guy R.D., Fogel M.L., Berry J.A. (1993). Photosynthetic fractionation of the stable isotopes of oxygen and carbon. Plant Physiology , 101(1) 37-47.
Harrison N., Harrison R.J., Barber-Perez N., Cascant-Lopez E., Cobo-Medina M., Lipska M., Conde-Ruíz R., Brain P., Gregory P. J. & Fernández-Fernández F. (2016). A new three-locus model for rootstock-induced dwarfing in apple revealed by genetic mapping of root bark percentage. Journal of experimental botany , 67 (6), 1871–1881.
Higgs K.H. & Jones H.G. (1990). Response of apple rootstocks to irrigation in South-East England. Journal of Horticultural Science , 65(2), 129-141.
Jones O.P. (1971). Effects of rootstocks and interstocks on the xylem sap composition in apple trees: effects on nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content. Annals of Botany , 35(4), 825–36.
Jones O.P. (1984). Mode-of-action of rootstock/scion interactions in apple and cherry trees. Acta Hortic. 146, 175-182.
Knipfer T., Reyes C., Earles JM., Berry ZC., Johnson DM., Brodersen CR. & McElrone AJ. (2019). Spatiotemporal coupling of vessel cavitation and discharge of stored xylem water in a tree sapling. Plant Physiol . 179, 1658–1668.
Knipfer T., Bambach N., Hernandez M.I., Bartlett M.K., Sinclair G., Duong F, Kluepfel D.A. & McElrone A.J. (2020). Predicting stomatal closure and turgor loss in woody plants using predawn and midday water potential. Plant Physiol, 184, 881–894.
Koepke T. & Dhingra A. (2013). Rootstock scion somatogenetic interactions in perennial composite plants. Plant Cell Rep. 32, 1321– 1337.
Kosina J. (2010). Effect of dwarfing and semi dwarfing apple rootstocks on growth and productivity of selected apple cultivars. Hortic Sci 37, 121–126.
Lauri P.E., Maguylo K., Trottier C. (2006). Architecture and size relations: an essay on the apple (Malus x domestica , Rosaceae) tree. Am J Bot 93(3), 357–368.
Lehmann M.M., Goldsmith G.R., Schmid L., Gessler A., Saurer M. & Siegwolf R.T.W. (2018). The effect of 18O‐labelled water vapour on the oxygen isotope ratio of water and assimilates in plants at high humidity. New Phytol , 217, 105-116.
Liu B.H., Cheng L., Ma F.W., Liang D. & Zou Y.J. (2012a). Influence of rootstock on drought response in young ‘Gale Gala’ apple (Malus domestica Borkh .) trees. J. Sci. Food Agr. 92, 2421-2427.
Liu BH., Cheng L., Liang D., Zou YJ. & Ma FW. (2012b). Growth, gas exchange, water-use efficiency, and carbon isotope composition of ‘Gale Gala’ apple trees grafted onto 9 wild Chinese rootstocks in response to drought stress. Photosynthetica, 50, 401–410.
Ma X., Ma F., Li C., Mi Y., Bai T. & Shu H. (2010). Biomass accumulation, allocation, and water-use efficiency in 10 malus rootstocks under two watering regimes. Agroforestry Systems, 80 (2), 283-294.
Ma Li, Hou C., Zhang X., Li H., Han D., Wang Yi, & Han Z. (2013). Seasonal Growth and Spatial Distribution of Apple Tree Roots on Different Rootstocks or Interstems, J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci ., 138(2), 79-87.
Marini R. P. & Fazio G. (2018). Apple rootstocks: history, physiology, management, and breeding. Horticultural Reviews, 45, 197-312.
Massonnet C., Costes E., Rambal S., Dreyer E. & Regnard J.L. (2007). Stomatal regulation of photosynthesis in apple leaves: evidence for different water-use strategies between two cultivars. Annals of Botany , 100(6), 1347–1356.
Mika A., Chlebowska D. & Kosmala J. (1981). Dwarfing effects of the close planting of apple trees grafted on semi-dwarfing and vigorous rootstocks. Acta Hortic . 114, 143-143.
Mills T.M., Behboudian M.H. & Clothier B.E. (1998). Discrimination against 13CO2 of water-stressed‘Braeburn ‘ apple. J. Plant Physiol. 153, 237-239.
Naor A. & Cohen S. (2003). Sensitivity and variability of maximum trunk shrinkage, midday stem water potential and transpiration rate in response to withholding irrigation from field-grown apple trees.HortScience , 38, 547-551.
Olien W.C. & Lakso A.L.A.N. (1984). A comparison of the dwarfing character and water relations of five apple rootstocks. Acta Hortic. 146, 151-158.
Olien, W.C. & Lakso, A.N. (1986). Effect of rootstock on apple (Malus Domestica ) tree water relations. Physiologia Plantarum , 67, 421-430.
Padgett-Johnson M, Williams LE & Walker M.A. (2000). The influence of Vitis riparia rootstock on water relations and gas exchange of Vitis vinifera cv. Carignane scion under non-irrigated conditions.American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 51, 137–143.
Palmer J.W. & Wertheim S.J. (1981). Effects of tree density on fruit quality. Acta Hortic . 114, 139-142.
Peccoux A., Loveys B., Zhu J., Gambetta G.A., Delrot S., Vivin P., Schultz H.R., Ollat N. & Dai Z. (2018). Dissecting the rootstock control of scion transpiration using model-assisted analyses in grapevine. Tree Physiology , 38, 1026–1040.
Roberts, R. H. (1927). Factors affecting the variable growth of apple grafts in the nursery row. Wise. Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bui. 77.
Roper T.R. (2001). Rootstocks for fruit trees in Wisconsin. Fact Sheet A3561 . Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture and Life Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison and University of Wisconsin-Extension.
Sansavini S., Bassi D. & Giunchi L. (1981). Tree efficiency and fruit quality in high-density apple orchards. Acta Hortic. 114, 114-136.
Saugier, B., Ehleringer, J. R., Hall, A. E., & Farquhar, G. D. (2012). Stable isotopes and plant carbon-water relations . Elsevier.
Scoffoni C., Albuquerque C., Brodersen C., Townes S.V., John G.P., Bartlett M.K. et al. (2017). Outside-xylem vulnerability, not xylem embolism, controls leaf hydraulic decline during dehydration.Plant Physiol ., 173, 1197–1210.
Seleznyova A.N., Tustin D.S. & Thorp T.G. (2008). Apple dwarfing rootstocks and interstocks affect the type of growth units produced during the annual growth cycle: Precocious transition to flowering affects the composition and vigour of annual shoots. Ann. Bot . 101, 679-687.
Shackel K.A., Ahmadi H., Biasi W., Buchner R., Goldhamer D., Gurusinghe S., et al. (1997). Plant water status as an index of irrigation need in deciduous fruit trees. HortTechnology , 7, 23-29.
Seibt U., Rajabi A., Griffiths H., & Berry J.A. (2008). Carbon isotopes and water use efficiency: sense and sensitivity. Oecologia, 155 (3), 441-454.
Seleznyova A.N., Thorp T.G., White M, Tustin S. & Costes E. (2003). Application of architectural analysis and AMAPmod methodology to study dwarfing phenomenon: the branch structure of ’Royal Gala’ apple grafted on dwarfing and non-dwarfing rootstock/interstock combinations.Ann Bot. 91(6), 665-72.
Soumelidou K., Battey N.H., John P. & Barnett J.R. (1994). The anatomy of the developing bud union and its relationship to dwarfing in apple.Ann Bot , 74, 605-611.
Spangelo L.P.S., Fejer S.O., Leuty S.J. & Granger R.L. (1974). ‘Ottawa 3’ clonal apple rootstock. J. Plant Sci. 54, 601-603.
Suter B., Triolo R., Pernet D., Dai Z. & Van Leeuwen C. (2019) Modeling Stem Water Potential by Separating the Effects of Soil Water Availability and Climatic Conditions on Water Status in Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). Front. Plant Sci . 10.
Tombesi S., Johnson R.S. & Day K.R., Dejong T.M. (2010). Interactions between rootstock, inter-stem and scion xylem vessel characteristics of peach trees growing on rootstocks with contrasting size-controlling characteristics. Aob Plants, 2010 .
Tubbs, F.R. (1980). Growth relations of rootstock and scion in apples,Journal of Horticultural Science , 55:2, 181-189.
Tworkoski T. & Miller S. (2007). Rootstock effect on growth of apple scions with different growth habits Sci. Hortic. 111, 335-343.
Tworkoski T. & Fazio G. (2015). Effects of size-controlling apple rootstocks on growth, abscisic acid, and hydraulic conductivity of scion of different vigor. Int J Fruit Sci ; 15, 369–381.
Valverdi, N. A., Cheng, L., & Kalcsits, L. (2019). Apple scion and rootstock contribute to nutrient uptake and partitioning under different belowground environments. Agronomy , 9(8), 415.
Valverdi, N. A., & Kalcsits, L. (2021). Apple rootstock genotype affects scion responses to water limitations under field conditions. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum43 (7), 1-14.
Villalobos-González L., Muñoz-Araya M., Franck N, Pastenes C. (2019). Controversies in midday water potential regulation and stomatal behavior might result from the environment, genotype, and/or rootstock: evidence from Carménère and Syrah grapevine varieties. Frontiers in Plant Science 10, 15-22.
Webster A.D. (1995). Rootstock and interstock effects on deciduous fruit tree vigour, precocity, and yield productivity. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 23 (4), 373-382.
Webster A.D. (2001). Rootstocks for temperate fruit crops: current uses, future potential and alternative strategies. Acta Hortic . 557, 25-34.
Werner C. & Gessler A. (2011). Diel variations in the carbon isotope composition of respired CO2 and associated carbon sources: a review of dynamics and mechanisms. Biogeosciences 8, 2437–2459.
Westwood M.N. (1970). Rootstock-scion relationships in hardiness of deciduous fruit trees. HortScience 5, 418-424.
White D.B. (1961). Stock, scion and interstem reactions in apple trees. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Ames, Iowa, Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology.
Table 1. Environmental data from June to August in 2018 and 2019 at Washington State University Sunrise Research Orchard in Wenatchee, WA.