Surface runoff
The conservation tillage measures of Cm, Hr, and Hr+Cm significantly reduced the runoff amount compared to CK under the two rainfall intensities at the maize seedling stage (Figure 4). Compared to CK, the Cm and Hr treatments reduced the runoff amount by 70.46% and 87.76%, respectively, at 50 mm h-1 and by 44.78% and 58.85%, respectively, at 100 mm h-1, respectively. The Hr+Cm treatment entirely prevented runoff generation at 50 mm h-1 and was still effective at 100 mm h-1, restricting the total runoff amount to a very low level of 20.79 L, accounting for only 16.61% of CK, and even causing ridge rupture. The Vr+Cm treatment significantly decreased the runoff amount by 54.61% compared to CK at 50 mm h-1, but there was no difference at 100 mm h-1. Conversely, Vr significantly enhanced the runoff amount by 25.04% compared to CK at 50 mm h-1, but there was no difference at 100 mm h-1.