Study Area
The study was carried out in the Chure range (18,982 km2) of Nepal. Chure is the young mountain range and consists of fragile sedimentary rocks such as mudstones, shale, sandstones, siltstones and conglomerates (Pokharel, 2013). It extends from east to west in southern Nepal touching all the seven provinces (Fig 1). Chure has monsoon dominated sub-tropical climate. The average maximum and minimum temperature of this range lie between 15.80C to 31.80C. The mean annual precipitation is between 1400mm to 2000mm (GoN-RCTM, 2017; FRA/DFRS, 2014). The Chure range has highly rugged terrain and the altitudinal variation ranges from 120m to ~2000m. There are over 160 river systems with a different origin that flows through this range (Chaudhary & Subedi 2019; GoN-RCTM, 2017; FRA/DFRS, 2014).
A large part of the Chure range (>70%) is forested. The Chure range consists of 23.4% of the forest and 3.5% of other woodland covers of Nepal (FRA/DFRS, 2014). This range is important for biodiversity and represents 3 ecoregions, 9 forest types, 8 Important Plant Areas (IPAs), 14 Important Bird Areas (IBAs), and six protected areas (FRA/DFRS, 2014). This range acts as a water reservoir for the Terai region towards the south. The government of Nepal has initiated the conservation of this range via President Chure-Terai Madhesh Conservation Development Board. The central and western part of Chure falls in the Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) which is a globally significant the landscape for biodiversity (MoFSC, 2015) and serves as an important habitat for endangered and threatened wildlife including tiger, greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis ), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus ), leopard, gaur (Bos gaurus ), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus ), pangolins (Manis crussicaudata andM. pentadactyla ), and hyaena (Hyaena hyaena ). Ungulates such as wild boar (Sus scrofa ), barking deer (Muntiacus vaginalis ), sambar (Rusa unicolar ), chital (Axis axis ) and three primates rhesus monkey (Macaca mulata ), Asamese monkey (Macaca assamensis ) and Terai grey langur (Semnopithecus hector ) serve as prey species for a range of carnivores including the leopards.
Chure is the home for 14% of Nepal’s human population and only 14% of the Chure area is suitable for cultivation (SAWTEE, 2016). The majority of the people depend on subsistence farming for food crops and animal husbandry is an integral part of their farm. Livestock grazing is widespread across the Chure forests. Deforestation, unplanned road construction, agricultural practices on the steep slopes, drying of the water resources, lowering of the water table and climate change are affecting this range (Chaudhary & Subedi, 2019; GoN-RCTM, 2017; Bhandari et al., 2016; FRA/DFRS, 2014; Pokharel, 2013).