Exposure factors
We collected the following information from our participants: maternal age, CH, PIH, placenta previa, multiple births, diabetes mellitus (DM), hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, hepatitis B, obesity, gestational age, amniotic fluid, newborn birth weight, birth weight for gestational age, and any use of assisted fertility techniques to estimate the relationship between maternal and fetal risk factors and hypospadias. The medical conditions mentioned above were obtained from the hospital database records, which were entered by obstetricians and neonatologists individually during the prenatal examinations and administration of the pregnancy. The diagnostic description was confirmed by the clinical findings, laboratory results, imaging, and pathological examinationsboth during pregnancy and after delivery according to the respective clinical protocols and guidelines.