Exposure factors
We collected the following information from our participants: maternal
age, CH, PIH, placenta previa, multiple births, diabetes mellitus (DM),
hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, hepatitis B, obesity, gestational age,
amniotic fluid, newborn birth weight, birth weight for gestational age,
and any use of assisted fertility techniques to estimate the
relationship between maternal and fetal risk factors and hypospadias.
The medical conditions mentioned above were obtained from the hospital
database records, which were entered by obstetricians and neonatologists
individually during the prenatal examinations and administration of the
pregnancy. The diagnostic description was confirmed by the clinical
findings, laboratory results, imaging, and pathological examinationsboth
during pregnancy and after delivery according to the respective clinical
protocols and guidelines.