Study species
Plantago lanceolata L. (Plantaginaceae) is a short-lived perennial herb with a typical lifespan of 2-5 yr (Lacey et al . 2003, Roach 2003), although some individuals may exceed 12 yr (Caverset al . 1980). Plants have one or more vegetative rosettes. Inflorescences emerge in late spring or summer; flowers are mostly self-incompatible and both wind- and insect-pollinated, (Clifford 1962, Sagar & Harper 1964). Plantago lanceolata is native to Europe, Western Asia and North Africa, although it has been introduced worldwide, mainly during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Hooker 1867, Cavers et al . 1980, Meyers & Liston 2008). The species occurs in a range of mostly open habitats, such as grasslands, sand dunes or disturbed sites, showing a wide environmental niche (Fig. 2; Sagar & Harper 1964).