The biorefinery, reads a succinct presentation, offers “opportunities for synergies between stakeholders at the site” with “flows and interconnections made possible through locations upstream or downstream of existing facilities”.36 In reality, this is exactly what the petrochemical industry does: integrating “upstream” oil and natural gas extraction with “downstream” refining and production of oil-derived and natural gas-derived “feedstocks”, basically ethylene, propylene, butadiene, aromatics, and synthesis gas (CO + H2), from which virtually all petrochemicals are derived, including ammonia and methanol.37
This industry, and the closely related but largely different fine chemical industry,38 are the main competitors of the emerging bioeconomy industry. Hence, the managers of successful bioeconomy companies will first study the nature (and the history) of the aforementioned branches of the chemical industry. Willing to enter the chemicals markets with biobased alternatives, the same managers should be aware that customers will buy their products driven only by higher product performance (quality), lower prices and reliable (stable and smooth) supply; and not by “green” or “bio” allures of their company’s productions.
This, in turn, requires to systematically adopting the model of lean production in small, flexible plants, which is the only model capable of producing low amounts of high value products at low production cost, following the highly variable customer demand.

3 Conclusions and perspectives

Starting from the need to transfer a closer understanding of the nature of bioeconomy companies and their competitive landscape, this study identifies the guiding principles for managing said companies. These include the key enabling technologies of the bioeconomy, the factors affecting the management of innovation in bioeconomy companies, the need to turn suppliers into real business partners, and to focus on low volume, high-margin bioproducts with the final aim to evolve from suppliers of biobased ingredients to producers of the final formulations reaching the retail marketplace.
Referring to tannin and pectin, we illustrated a unique trait of bioeconomy productions, namely the virtually unlimited market for many bioproductions once an economically viable production process has been identified and industrialized. This is due to the unique versatility of many small and large biomolecules, which creates room for diverse potentially large-scale applications. In an opposite fashion to the “blatant lack of reflexivity” that “characterizes the bioeconomy discourse”,39 these newly shaped managers will manage their company’s bioproductions measuring and achieving reduced exploitation of natural resources, aware that rebound effects are possible,40 and can be avoided. Decoupling of biological material resource use and economic growth is possible both at the level of resource stocks, and at the level of biological renewability.
A single example suffices to render the idea. Recently demonstrated in the case of the most fished species across the seas (the anchovy), concomitant production of both fish oil41 rich in omega-3 lipids and high performance organic fertilizer42 can now rely on fish processing waste rather than fish itself. This closes the material cycle through a green chemistry technology (extraction with biobased and antimicrobial solvent limonene) and converts anchovy waste into a highly valued resource. Clearly, this discovery should not lead to increase pressure on the anchovy stocks, but rather to diminish it by finally valorising the biowaste amounting to >50% in weight of the fish catched and so far landfilled or, at best, used for the production of compost.
The same holds for the high energy efficient continuous flow productions that will be used by successful bioeconomy companies, avoiding the Jevons’ paradox for which, since machines were more productive and economical, this led to increased use and increased consumption of energy (coal).43 Aware that the economies of flow, rather than economies of scale, maximize value and minimize waste,44 managers of such successful organizations will be trained in energy management too. The reason is that energy is no longer a technical issue left unmanaged, but a central one to be taken in charge by fully trained Energy managers working in the top management of the company to effectively achieve higher levels of energy efficiency and renewable energy penetration.45
Energy, indeed, plays a significantly more important role in driving economic growth than is conventionally assumed.43
Again, one example suffices to provide evidence supporting this claim. From Clermont-Ferrand hospital parking through Algeria’s coastal roads using each hundreds of off-grid solar lighting systems based on energy-efficient light emitting diodes, photovoltaic modules and Li-ion batteries, thousands of roads, parks, parking areas and squares today are lit thanks to solar lighting.46 Owners of the lighting systems receive no electricity or maintenance bills, while light is supplied every year’s night to citizens in both economically developed and developing regions. There is no rebound or “backfire” effect. The white light supplied is generally of much higher quality (devoid of UV and IR radiation, with the right colour temperature and with minimal light pollution thanks to advanced optics) than conventional lighting systems using older technology with electricity supplied from the grid.
In conclusion, from India47 through Germany48 and the USA,49 everywhere from across the world a critical analysis of research in management education and Masters in business administration suggest to re-design management education curricula to make education more practice-oriented, and based on theory tested and tried in the field. Educating the managers of the bioeconomy is no exception. This study suggests avenues to plan and develop such a practice-oriented course developed in accord to sound guiding management principles originating from a careful analysis of successful and unsuccessful bioproductions in the first two decades (2000-2020) of the bioeconomy. Eventually, as put it by Raelin, this and related courses will be able to educate and develop managers “who understand the meaning inherent in the current organizational context rather than exporting young visionaries from the outside”.49

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts to declare.

Acknowledgements

This study is dedicated to the memory of solar energy pioneer Hermann Scheer (1944-2010), who reminded throughout his entire professional life the importance of practice-oriented education.