Study area

This study was carried out in Sabon-Gari and Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria. The species of birds used for the study were Laughing doves (Spilolepia senegalensis ) (LD), Speckled pigeons (Columba guinea ) (SP), Cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis ) (CE), Senegalese parrot (Poicephalus senegalus ) (SPR), Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos ) and Geese (Anser anserini ). Some of the birds were captured alive around poultry houses using wooden traps, while some were purchased from live bird markets (LBMs). The birds were identified by an ornithologist using coloured atlas in the Department of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. Thereafter, physical examination was conducted on each bird to be sure there were no lesions, external wounds or ectoparasites before it was used for this study.