Managing uncertain an economic climate
Throughout all of the planning, management and monitoring stages of a MPA, funding is necessary. Consideration of the MPA timeframe is important in that long-term funding for ongoing operational support, monitoring, reporting and surveillance technology will be required. An international financial body under the BBNJ Convention would help to facilitate funding at an international level for high seas MPAs however, this would other options need to be considered that would benefit local scale MPAs. Unforeseen events and the current COVID-19 pandemic will have a detrimental impact on MPAs. Many MPAs that previously relied on tourism to support the financial operation of the MPA are now suffering e.g. daily visitation rate in Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve in Hawaii has shrunk from 3000 to nearly zero due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Lyte 2020). Similarly, the fishing sector is also facing financial risk from the pandemic and the contraction of markets. There may be opportunities for MPA-oriented institutions to help fishermen protect their jobs while strengthening their environmental sustainability via improved practices.
Conclusion
Changing pressures on the world’s oceans arise from a number of (often-interrelated) driving issues; from population increase; associated demands for broader access to aquatic resources and increased demand for seafood; increased environmental disruption from human impacts on habitats and especially climate change induced changes to marine ecosystems; broader changes in global biophysical and economic environments such as the COVID-19 pandemic. These changing and expanding pressures have substantial repercussions for developing pathways for a sustainable ocean future. The world’s oceans continue to face a range of biophysical, social and economic challenges. MPAs are one tool that can be used to manage these pressures but are not the only management tool. There are a wide variety of spatial management tools (e.g. Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems) and non-spatial tools (e.g. catch controls, effort controls, market based tools) that can be implemented in addition to MPAs to ensure that development pathways are sustainable. In addition to static approaches, dynamic approaches to spatial management will be increasingly important as climate change continues to cause re-distribution of biodiversity values (i.e. Dynamic Ocean Management; see Melbourne-Thomas et al 2020 this issue for additional detail in the context of the Future Seas project).
Rules under UNCLOS, established in the mid twentieth century that had a commitment to treating the oceans as the ‘common heritage of mankind’ have come under stress as governance failures with respect to protecting the environment and maintaining likelihoods have become increasingly apparent. The broadening and deepening (and increased complexity) of oceans governance regimes have addressed some of these issues but not others. Access and equity to the oceans remain key issues, particular for developed and emerging economies. The development of effective marine environmental protection regimes provides opportunities but also challenges. While such initiatives address ecosystem damage and decline, the question of fairness in their development and implementation remains a core concern. Ensuring that the social and economic bases to livelihoods are supported by heathy oceans underpins United Nations SDG 14, and developing marine environmental protection arrangements need to support such high-level principles.