REFERENCES
  1. Belanger J, Kossick M. Methods of identifying and managing the difficult airway in the pediatric population. AANA J . 2015; 83: 35-41.
  2. Xi J, Si X, Zhou Y, Kim J, Berlinski A. Growth of nasal and laryngeal airways in children: implications in breathing and inhaled aerosol dynamics. Respir Care . 2014; 59: 263-73.
  3. Pedersen OF, Berkowitz R, Yamagiwa M, Hilberg O. Nasal cavity dimensions in the newborn measured by acoustic reflections. Laryngoscope . 1994; 104: 1023-8.
  4. Adewale L. Anatomy and assessment of the pediatric airway. Paediatr Anaesth . 2009; 19: 1-8.
  5. Vialet R, Nau A, Chaumoître K, Martin C. Effects of head posture on the oral, pharyngeal and laryngeal axis alignment in infants and young children by magnetic resonance imaging. Paediatr Anaesth . 2008; 18: 525-31.
  6. Arens R, McDonough JM, Costarino AT, Mahboubi S, Tayag-Kier CE, Maislin G, Schwab RJ, Pack AI. Magnetic resonance imaging of the upper airway structure of children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 2001; 164: 698-703.
  7. Ishijima K, Sando I, Balaban C, Suzuki C, Takasaki K. Length of the eustachian tube and its postnatal development: computer-aided three-dimensional reconstruction and measurement study. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol . 2000; 109: 542-8.
  8. Bluestone CD. Humans are born too soon: impact on pediatric otolaryngology. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol . 2005; 69: 1-8.
  9. Hudgins PA, Siegel J, Jacobs I, Abramowsky CR. The normal pediatric larynx on CT and MR. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1997; 18: 239-45.
  10. Dickison AE. The normal and abnormal pediatric upper airway. Recognition and management of obstruction. Clin Chest Med . 1987; 8: 583-96.
  11. Eckenhoff JE. Some anatomic considerations of the infant larynx influencing endotracheal anesthesia. Anesthesiology . 1951; 12: 401-10.
  12. Monnier P. Applied Surgical Anatomy of the Larynx and Trachea. In P. Monnier (ed.), Pediatric Airway Surgery, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011; pp 7-29.
  13. Moss ML. The veloepiglottic sphincter and obligate nose breathing in the neonate. J Pediatr.  1965; 67: 330-5.
  14. Miller MJ, Carlo WA, Strohl KP, Fanaroff AA, Martin RJ. Effect of maturation on oral breathing in sleeping premature infants. J Pediatr . 1986; 109: 515-9.
  15. Polgar G, Kong GP. The nasal resistance of newborn infants. J Pediatr . 1965; 67: 557-67.
  16. Rodenstein DO, Perlmutter N, Stănescu DC. Infants are not obligatory nasal breathers. Am Rev Respir Dis . 1985; 131: 343-7.
  17. Bergeson PS, Shaw JC. Are infants really obligatory nasal breathers?Clin Pediatr (Phila) . 2001; 40: 567-9.
  18. Holzki J, Brown KA, Carroll RG, Coté CJ. The anatomy of the pediatric airway: Has our knowledge changed in 120 years? A review of historic and recent investigations of the anatomy of the pediatric larynx. Paediatr Anaesth . 2018; 28: 13-22.
  19. Wani TM, Bissonnette B, Engelhardt T, Buchh B, Arnous H, AlGhamdi F, Tobias JD. The pediatric airway: Historical concepts, new findings, and what matters. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol . 2019; 121: 29-33.
  20. Bayeux. Tubage de larynx dans le Croup. Presse Med. 1897; 20: 1.
  21. Litman RS, Weissend EE, Shibata D, Westesson PL. Developmental changes of laryngeal dimensions in unparalyzed, sedated children. Anesthesiology . 2003; 98: 41-5.
  22. Dalal PG, Murray D, Messner AH, Feng A, McAllister J, Molter D. Pediatric laryngeal dimensions: an age-based analysis. Anesth Analg . 2009; 108: 1475-9.
  23. Wani TM, Rafiq M, Akhter N, AlGhamdi FS, Tobias JD. Upper airway in infants-a computed tomography-based analysis. Paediatr Anaesth . 2017; 27: 501-5.
  24. Wani TM, Rafiq M, Talpur S, Soualmi L, Tobias JD. Pediatric upper airway dimensions using three-dimensional computed tomography imaging. Paediatr Anaesth . 2017; 27: 604-8.
  25. Wani TM, Bissonnette B, Rafiq Malik M, Hayes D Jr, Ramesh AS, Al Sohaibani M, Tobias JD. Age-based analysis of pediatric upper airway dimensions using computed tomography imaging. Pediatr Pulmonol . 2016; 51: 267-71.
  26. Luscan R, Leboulanger N, Fayoux P, Kerner G, Belhous K, Couloigner V, Garabedian EN, Simon F, Denoyelle F, Thierry B. Developmental changes of upper airway dimensions in children. Paediatr Anaesth . 2020; 30: 435-45.
  27. Karlberg J. A biologically-oriented mathematical model (ICP) for human growth. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl . 1989; 350: 70-94.
  28. Santillanes G, Gausche-Hill M. Pediatric airway management. Emerg Med Clin North Am . 2008; 26: 961-75.
  29. Sims C, von Ungern-Sternberg BS. The normal and the challenging pediatric airway. Paediatr Anaesth . 2012; 22: 521-6.
  30. Tobias JD. Pediatric airway anatomy may not be what we thought: implications for clinical practice and the use of cuffed endotracheal tubes. Paediatr Anaesth . 2015; 25: 9-19.
  31. Griscom NT, Wohl ME. Dimensions of the growing trachea related to age and gender. AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1986; 146: 233-7.
  32. Szpinda M, Daroszewski M, Woźniak A, Szpinda A, Mila-Kierzenkowska C. Tracheal dimensions in human fetuses: an anatomical, digital and statistical study. Surg Radiol Anat . 2012; 34: 317-23.
  33. Hislop A, Muir DC, Jacobsen M, Simon G, Reid L. Postnatal growth and function of the pre-acinar airways. Thorax . 1972; 27: 265-74.
  34. Jeffrey PK. The development of large and small airways. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 1998; 157: S174-80.
  35. Merkus PJ, ten Have-Opbroek AA, Quanjer PH. Human lung growth: a review. Pediatr Pulmonol . 1996; 21: 383-97.
  36. Bucher U, Reid L. Development of the intrasegmental bronchial tree: the pattern of branching and development of cartilage at various stages of intra-uterine life. Thorax . 1961; 16: 207-18.
  37. Hislop AA, Haworth SG. Airway size and structure in the normal fetal and infant lung and the effect of premature delivery and artificial ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis . 1989; 140: 1717-26.
  38. Bryan AC, Wohl MEB. Respiratory mechanics in children. In: Fishman AP, Macklem PT, Mead J (eds) Mechanics of breathing, part 2. (Handbook of physiology, section 3. The respiratory system, vol III) 1986 American Physiological Society, Bethesda, Md.; pp 179-91.
  39. Hogg JC, Williams J, Richardson JB, Macklem PT, Thurlbeck WM. Age as a factor in the distribution of lower-airway conductance and in the pathologic anatomy of obstructive lung disease. N Engl J Med . 1970; 282: 1283-7.
  40. Motoyama EK. Pulmonary mechanics during early postnatal years. Pediatr Res . 1977; 11: 220-3.
  41. Taussig LM, Landau LI, Godfrey S, Arad I. Determinants of forced expiratory flows in newborn infants. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol . 1982; 53: 1220-7.
  42. Hoch H, Mallory GB Jr, Taussig L. Retrospectoscope: Are the peripheral airways in infants and young children disproportionately small, putting them at risk for severe respiratory illnesses?. Pediatr Pulmonol . 2017; 52: 1405-7.
  43. Horsfield K, Gordon WI, Kemp W, Phillips S. Growth of the bronchial tree in man. Thorax . 1987; 42: 383-8.
  44. Ornitz DM, Yin Y. Signaling networks regulating development of the lower respiratory tract. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol . 2012; 4: a008318. Published 2012 May 1.
  45. Reid LM. Lung growth in health and disease. Br J Dis Chest . 1984; 78: 113-34.
  46. Rosenthal M, Bush A. The growing lung: normal development, and the long-term effects of pre- and postnatal insults. Eur Respir Mon 2002; 19: 1-24.
  47. Hislop AA. Airway and blood vessel interaction during lung development. J Anat . 2002; 201: 325-34.
  48. Dezateux C, Stocks J. Lung development and early origins of childhood respiratory illness. Br Med Bull . 1997; 53: 40-57.
  49. Dunnill MS. The problem of lung growth. Thorax . 1982; 37: 561-3.
  50. Green M, Mead J, Turner JM. Variability of maximum expiratory flow-volume curves. J Appl Physiol . 1974; 37: 67-74.
  51. Merkus PJ. Effects of childhood respiratory diseases on the anatomical and functional development of the respiratory system. Paediatr Respir Rev . 2003; 4: 28-39.
  52. Burri PH. Structural aspects of postnatal lung development - alveolar formation and growth. Biol Neonate . 2006; 89: 313-22.
  53. Zeltner TB, Burri PH. The postnatal development and growth of the human lung. II. Morphology. Respir Physiol . 1987; 67: 269-82.
  54. Thurlbeck WM. Postnatal human lung growth. Thorax . 1982; 37: 564-71.
  55. Dunnill MS. Postnatal Growth of the Lung. Thorax . 1962; 17: 329-33.
  56. Weibel ER, Gomez DM. A principle for counting tissue structures on random sections. J Appl Physiol . 1962; 17: 343-8.
  57. de Jong PA, Nakano Y, Lequin MH, et al. Estimation of lung growth using computed tomography. Eur Respir J . 2003; 22: 235-8.
  58. Davies G, Reid L. Growth of the alveoli and pulmonary arteries in childhood. Thorax . 1970; 25: 669-81.
  59. Narayanan M, Owers-Bradley J, Beardsmore CS, Mada M, Ball I, Garipov R, Panesar KS, Kuehni CE, Spycher BD, Williams SE et al. Alveolarization continues during childhood and adolescence: new evidence from helium-3 magnetic resonance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 2012; 185: 186-91.
  60. Rosenthal M, Cramer D, Bain SH, Denison D, Bush A, Warner JO. Lung function in white children aged 4 to 19 years: II–Single breath analysis and plethysmography. Thorax . 1993; 48: 803-8.
  61. Calogero C, Sly PD. Developmental physiology: lung function during growth and development from birth to old age. Eur Respir Monograph. 2010: 1-15.
  62. Kohn HN. Zur histologie der indurirenden fibrinosen pneumonie [in German] Munch Med Wochenschr . 1893; 40: 42-4.
  63. Lambert MW. Accessory bronchiolealveolar communications. J Pathol Bacteriol . 1955; 70: 311-4.
  64. Martin HB. Respiratory bronchioles as the pathway for collateral ventilation. J Appl Physiol . 1966; 21: 1443-7.
  65. Terry PB, Traystman RJ. The Clinical Significance of Collateral Ventilation. Ann Am Thorac Soc . 2016; 13: 2251-7.
  66. Raskin SP, Herman PG. Interacinar pathways in the human lung. Am Rev Respir Dis . 1975; 111: 489-95.
  67. Walsh BK, Hood K, Merritt G. Pediatric airway maintenance and clearance in the acute care setting: how to stay out of trouble. Respir Care . 2011; 56: 1424-44.
  68. Boyden EA. Notes on the development of the lung in infancy and early childhood. Am J Anat . 1967; 121: 749-61.
  69. Weiss MJ, Burri PH. Formation of interalveolar pores in the rat lung. Anat Rec . 1996; 244: 481-9.
  70. Gaultier C. Respiratory muscle function in infants. Eur Respir J . 1995; 8: 150-3.
  71. Papastamelos C, Panitch HB, England SE, Allen JL. Developmental changes in chest wall compliance in infancy and early childhood. J Appl Physiol (1985) . 1995; 78: 179-84.
  72. Openshaw P, Edwards S, Helms P. Changes in rib cage geometry during childhood. Thorax . 1984; 39: 624-7.
  73. Greenspan JS, Miller TL, Shaffer TH. The neonatal respiratory pump: a developmental challenge with physiologic limitations. Neonatal Netw . 2005; 24: 15-22.
  74. Keens TG, Bryan AC, Levison H, Ianuzzo CD. Developmental pattern of muscle fiber types in human ventilatory muscles. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol . 1978; 44: 909-13.
  75. Keens TG, Ianuzzo CD. Development of fatigue-resistant muscle fibers in human ventilatory muscles. Am Rev Respir Dis . 1979; 119: 139-41.
  76. Tepper RS. Airway reactivity in infants: a positive response to methacholine and metaproterenol. J Appl Physiol (1985) . 1987; 62: 1155-9.
  77. Rusconi F, Castagneto M, Gagliardi L, Leo G, Pellegatta A, Porta N, Razon S, Braga M. Reference values for respiratory rate in the first 3 years of life. Pediatrics . 1994; 94: 350-5.
  78. Fleming S, Thompson M, Stevens R, Heneghan C, Plüddemann A, Maconochie I, Tarassenko L, Mant D. Normal ranges of heart rate and respiratory rate in children from birth to 18 years of age: a systematic review of observational studies. Lancet . 2011; 377: 1011-8.
  79. Mortola JP. Breathing pattern in newborns. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol . 1984; 56: 1533-40.
  80. Kosch PC, Hutchinson AA, Wozniak JA, Carlo WA, Stark AR. Posterior cricoarytenoid and diaphragm activities during tidal breathing in neonates. J Appl Physiol (1985) . 1988; 64: 1968-78.
  81. Harding R, Johnson P, McClelland ME. Respiratory function of the larynx in developing sheep and the influence of sleep state. Respir Physiol . 1980; 40: 165-79.
  82. Thach BT. Maturation of cough and other reflexes that protect the fetal and neonatal airway. Pulm Pharmacol Ther . 2007; 20: 365-70.