4.1.2. Hyperparasites of black mildews
An approximate 200 species of fungi are reported to be hyperparasitic on
colonies of black mildews (Sordariomycetes: Meliolales). They include
organisms from diverse systematic groups, and therefore comprise species
producing a high diversity of reproductive structures, such as
synnemata, pycnidia, apothecia, perithecia, and catathecia, among others
(Bermúdez-Cova et al., 2022). The most common hyperparasites of
black mildews are species of the genera Atractilina, Spiropes (Pezizomycotina incertae sedis ), Dimerosporiella (Sordariomycetes: Hypocreales), and Trichothyrium (Dothideomycetes: Microthyriales) (Bermúdez-Cova et al., 2022; Deighton and Pirozynski, 1972; Ellis, 1968;
Pirozynski, 1977; Rossman, 1987; Rossman et al., 1999).
Hyperparasites of Meliolales are contact-biotrophic fungi and prevent
their host from producing spores and ascomata (Stevens, 1918; Toro,
1952). The current systematic position of almost all species of
hyperparasitic fungi of Meliolales is unknown due to two reasons: the
description of many of these predated the molecular era and technical
problems make DNA extractions and PCR amplifications challenging (see 7.
Molecular studies of hyperparasitic fungi).