Other terms that have been used as synonyms or hypernyms have included desktop manufacturing, rapid
manufacturing (as the logical production-level successor to rapid prototyping), and on-demand manufacturing
(which echoes on-demand printing in the 2D sense of printing). That such application of the adjectives rapid
and on-demand to the noun manufacturing was novel in the 2000s reveals the prevailing mental model of the
long industrial era in which almost all production manufacturing involved long lead times for laborious tooling
development. Today, the term subtractive has not replaced the term machining, instead complementing it
when a term that covers any removal method is needed. Agile tooling is the use of modular means to design
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tooling that is produced by additive manufacturing or 3D printing methods to enable quick prototyping and
responses to tooling and fixture needs. Agile tooling uses a cost effective and high quality method to quickly
respond to customer and market needs, and it can be used in hydro-forming, stamping, injection molding
and other manufacturing processes.
History
1981
Early additive manufacturing equipment and materials were developed in the 1980s. In 1981, Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute invented two additive methods for fabricating
three-dimensional plastic models with photo-hardening thermoset polymer, where the UV exposure area is
controlled by a mask pattern or a scanning fiber transmitter.
1984
On 16 July 1984, Alain Le M´ehaut´e, Olivier de Witte, and Jean Claude Andr´e filed their patent for the
stereolithography process. The application of the French inventors was abandoned by the French General
Electric Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and CILAS (The Laser Consortium). The claimed reason was “for
lack of business perspective”.
Three weeks later in 1984, Chuck Hull of 3D Systems Corporation filed his own patent for a stereolithography
fabrication system, in which layers are added by curing photopolymers with ultraviolet light lasers. Hull
defined the process as a “system for generating three-dimensional objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern
of the object to be formed,”. Hull’s contribution was the STL (Stereolithography) file format and the digital
slicing and infill strategies common to many processes today.
1988
The technology used by most 3D printers to dateespecially hobbyist and consumer-oriented modelsis
fused deposition modeling, a special application of plastic extrusion, developed in 1988 by S. Scott Crump
and commercialized by his company Stratasys, which marketed its first FDM machine in 1992.
AM processes for metal sintering or melting (such as selective laser sintering, direct metal laser sintering,
and selective laser melting) usually went by their own individual names in the 1980s and 1990s. At the time,
all metalworking was done by processes that we now call non-additive (casting, fabrication, stamping, and
machining); although plenty of automation was applied to those technologies (such as by robot welding and
CNC), the idea of a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw material
into a desired shape with a toolpath was associated in metalworking only with processes that removed metal
(rather than adding it), such as CNC milling, CNC EDM, and many others. But the automated techniques
that added metal, which would later be called additive manufacturing, were beginning to challenge that
assumption. By the mid-1990s, new techniques for material deposition were developed at Stanford and
Carnegie Mellon University, including microcasting and sprayed materials. Sacrificial and support materials
had also become more common, enabling new object geometries.
1993
The term 3D printing originally referred to a powder bed process employing standard and custom inkjet print
heads, developed at MIT in 1993 and commercialized by Soligen Technologies, Extrude Hone Corporation,
and Z Corporation.
The year 1993 also saw the start of a company called Solidscape, introducing a high-precision polymer jet
fabrication system with soluble support structures, (categorized as a “dot-on-dot” technique).
1995
In 1995 the Fraunhofer Institute developed the selective laser melting process.
2009
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printing process patents expired in 2009. As the various additive processes
matured, it became clear that soon metal removal would no longer be the only metalworking process done
through a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a
desired shape layer by layer. The 2010s were the first decade in which metal end use parts such as engine
brackets and large nuts would be grown (either before or instead of machining) in job production rather than
obligately being machined from bar stock or plate. It is still the case that casting, fabrication, stamping,
and machining are more prevalent than additive manufacturing in metalworking, but AM is now beginning
to make significant inroads, and with the advantages of design for additive manufacturing, it is clear to
engineers that much more is to come.
As technology matured, several authors had begun to speculate that 3D printing could aid in sustainable
development in the developing world.
2013
NASA employees Samantha Snabes and Matthew Fiedler create first prototype of large-format, affordable
3D printer, Gigabot, and launch 3D printing company re:3D.
2018
re:3D develops a system that uses plastic pellets that can be made by grinding up waste plastic.
General principles
Modeling
3D printable models may be created with a computer-aided design (CAD) package, via a 3D scanner, or
by a plain digital camera and photogrammetry software. 3D printed models created with CAD result in
reduced errors and can be corrected before printing, allowing verification in the design of the object before it
is printed. The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to
plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D scanning is a process of collecting digital data on the shape and appearance
of a real object, creating a digital model based on it.
Printing
Before printing a 3D model from an STL file, it must first be examined for errors. Most CAD applications
(Fig. 4) produce errors in output STL files of the following types:
- holes,
- faces normal,
- self-intersections,
- noise shells,
- manifold errors.
A step in the STL generation known as “repair” fixes such problems in the original model. Generally STLs
that have been produced from a model obtained through 3D scanning often have more of these errors. This
is due to how 3D scanning works-as it is often by point to point acquisition, reconstruction will include errors
in most cases.
Once completed, the STL file needs to be processed by a piece of software called a “slicer,” which converts
the model into a series of thin layers and produces a G-code file containing instructions tailored to a specific
type of 3D printer (FDM printers). This G-code file can then be printed with 3D printing client software
(which loads the G-code, and uses it to instruct the 3D printer during the 3D printing process).
Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X–Y resolution in dots per inch (dpi) or micrometers (mm).
Typical layer thickness is around 100 mm (250 DPI), although some machines can print layers as thin as 16