Cultivation and Newer Television Technologies
The Cultural Indicators group formulated their approach and observed most support for cultivation when 90% of all television viewing centered on network primetime programming. The introduction and widespread adoption of cable television, videocassette recorders (VCR), and remote control devices (RCD) have dramatically changed the U.S. media environment. Between 1980 and 1990, cable subscription increased from 22% of the U.S. population to 61.2%; VCR ownership increased from 1% to 73%; and remote control penetration increased from 18% to 77% (Gross, 1992; ”In Brief,” 1991; Shagrin, 1990; Sheridan, 1991). Now, network primetime programs are no longer a dominant part of television viewers’ total exposure. The average primetime program rating is declining (Atkin & Litman, 1986). And, the networks’ share of the audience has declined from 93% in 1975 to 64% in 1990 (Setzer & Levy, 1991). People are no longer television viewers; they are video users with more programming options and greater opportunity for viewing selectivity (Bryant, 1986).
There are two perspectives to the impact of new video technologies on cultivation’s trust. On one hand, Gerbner (1990) and Morgan, Shanahan, and Harris (1990) argue that the new television environment will have little impact on cultivation effects. New television technologies are better viewed as changes in delivery systems, rather than real changes in content. These technologies do not necessarily replace television exposure, but add to it. So, these new technologies may even increase cultivation effects because they increase the availability of ”network‑type” programming to times when they were not typically available before.
There is support for this view. Adolescents whose families subscribed to cable showed stronger cross‑time associations between television viewing levels and sexist beliefs about appropriate chores for boys and girls than adolescents without cable (Morgan & Rothschild, 1983). And, Morgan and his colleagues (1990) observed a relationship between VCR use and believing women are happier raising children and caring for the home. The researchers concluded that cable and VCR intensify television’s cultivation potential.
Reports of the uses of the newer television technologies, however, contradict the assumption of continued cultivation effects. Cable, VCRs, and RCDs can increase the diversity of programming available to viewers and allow people to be more selective.
Cable . Morgan and Rothschild (1983) argued that cable television’s increased channel offerings do not necessarily mean that subscribers are exposed to different programming. Cable television can deliver ”more of the same.” Indeed, several cable systems fill their channels with independents and ”super stations” that run off‑network and syndicated programming created in the mold of network television. And, cable subscription might increase cultivation effects because subscription is related to increased television viewing. Basic cable subscribers watch more television than nonsubscribers; pay‑cable subscribers watch the most television (Garay, 1988).
On the other hand, cable television increases the capacity for audience selectivity because cable television increases the programming options available to viewers. Cable makes available some very specialized content, such as news, weather, shopping, public affairs. Some subscribers make use of increased program variety. Cable subscribers have higher channel repertoires, that is, they watch more different channels than nonsubscribers (Ainslie, 1988; Ferguson, 1992a; Heeter, D’Alessio, Greenberg, & McVoy, 1988). Cable subscribers also are aware of and value the specialized programming offered by cable (Sparkes & Kang, 1986). Most valued cable channels are those that provide content not duplicated by broadcast television: CNN, ESPN, FNN, MTV, TNN, Nickelodeon, and The Weather Channel (Garay, 1988). Webster (1986) observed that some cable subscribers concentrate their viewing on those specialized channels. Ratings data showed that cable subscribers spend less time watching over‑the‑air television (Webster, 1986).
Cable subscribers may also be more active television viewers. Cable subscribers are more likely to use program guides (Greenberg, Heeter, D’Alessio, & Sipes, 1988; Heeter & Baldwin, 1988). Cable subscribers are also more likely to sample channels in orienting searches (Heeter & Greenberg, 1988).
Cable subscription, then, may be differentially related to cultivation effects. If viewers concentrate their viewing on channels that carry content similar to the broadcast networks (broadcast channel repertoire), they may be more likely to acquire cultivated perceptions about the world. If viewers watch more of the special channels that cable television offers (cable channel repertoire), they view more diverse messages, and be less likely to be cultivated.
H1: Greater viewing of ”broadcast‑type” channels (higher broadcast channel repertoire) will be associated with greater cultivation effects.
H2: Greater viewing of cable’s specialized channels (higher cable channel repertoire) will be associated with fewer cultivation effects.
Videocassette recorders . Videocassette recorders may enhance cultivation effects for several reasons. First, purchasing and using a VCR may reflect a stronger commitment to television viewing. Second, VCRs allow people to watch ”more of the same” type of content because of time‑shifting. Further, the apparent diversity of content available on video may be an illusion, because of concentrated ownership of production facilities (Morgan et al., 1990). Dobrow (1990) observed that heavy television viewers used VCRs more for time‑shifting network programs. She concluded that heavy television viewers used VCRs to avoid diverse programming and concentrate on their favorite program types. Cultivation effects, then, might increase for heavy VCR users because it exposes them to even more mainstream television content (Dobrow, 1990; Morgan et al., 1990).
There is, however, evidence that VCRs increase program diversity. Adolescents in households with VCRs use the machines to watch new types of programs, such as late‑night television, soap operas, and videos (Morgan et al., 1990). Over 90% of the adolescents reported that the VCR increased their viewing diversity. And, although VCRs allow people to tape network programs for more convenient viewing, many time‑shifted programs are never watched (Levy & Fink, 1984; Lin, 1990). Because of low cost and greater availability, the dominant use of VCR is viewing rented tapes (Komiya & Litman, 1990; Lin, 1990) and special interest videos (Rubin & Bantz, 1987).
Use of the VCR for viewing rented videos should reduce cultivation for two reasons. Viewing rented videos displaces television content and increases the likelihood that the viewers will be exposed to different themes and images. Adolescents who rented videos were less likely to endorse sexist attitudes (Morgan et al., 1990).
VCRs may also be associated with fewer cultivation effects because VCRs lead people to be more active in the use of television content. VCR users plan their viewing more and make greater use of program guides (Lin, 1990). VCR owners are more active before, during, and after exposure (Levy, 1987).
VCR ownership and use, then, should be differentially related to cultivation effects. Because VCR ownership increases the possibility of exposure to a greater variety of video programming:
H3: VCR ownership will be negatively related to cultivation effects.
But, evidence suggests that heavy use of VCRs to time‑shift television content exposes viewers to more of television’s content. Thus,
H4: Use of the VCR for time‑shifting will be positively related to cultivation effects.
Because the use of VCRs to rent and view content that differs from that available on television:
H5: Use of the VCR for video rental will be negatively related to cultivation effects.
Remote control devices . Remote control devices (RCD) are an important part of the new media environment (Walker & Bellamy, 1991). A major use of RCDs is grazing, or changing channels frequently to sample television’s offerings (Ainslie, 1988). The remote control increases audience selectivity because viewers can change channels more easily, that is, without having to move to the television set. Remote control device owners do change channels more. They are more likely to scan channels to look for something to watch (Heeter & Greenberg, 1988). Remote controls have been associated with greater channel changing in the middle of television programs (Heeter, 1985; Heeter & Baldwin, 1988) and more extensive reevaluation (Heeter, 1985). The remote control device also increases exposure to a wider range of television programs. Remote control device owners have higher channel repertoires (Ainslie, 1988; Ferguson, 1992a).
Thus, RCDs may reduce cultivation effects from television viewing for two reasons. First, because RCDs increase ease in sampling different television programs, RCD owners are more likely to watch channels that may present themes and images that differ from network television. Second, because RCD owners search for specific content and reevaluate what they watch, they may be viewing television more critically, and be less susceptible to cultivation effects.
H6: Remote control device ownership will be negatively related to cultivation effects.
H7: Remote control device use will be negatively related to cultivation effects.
We conducted two studies, in two different geographical regions, to test the impact of cable television, videocassette recorders, and remote control devices on cultivation effects of television viewing. We focused specifically on cultivation of two sets of beliefs that research has found to be related consistently to television content and to increased television viewing: fear of crime and interpersonal mistrust.
Study 1