For the subset of patients with MRI positive focal cortical dysplasias, lesions were traced in the volume using AFNI by an experienced neurologist using the T1 weighted image when possible, informed by the T2 and FLAIR images when necessary. For MRI negative patients, the postoperative T1 weighted image was registered to the preoperative T1 weighted image in the same manner as described previously for T2 and FLAIR contrasts, and the resected region was traced using AFNI. The resulting lesion masks were mapped onto the surface at the gray-white junction in the same manner as described when originally sampling the features onto the surface.