Chlorogalum pomeridianum
Table of Contents
Fryer, Janet L. 2015. (Revised from Reeves, Sonja L. 2006.) Chlorogalum pomeridianum, wavyleaf soap plant.
In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer).
Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/chlpom/all.html [2017, February 16].
CHLPOM
None
CHPO3
wavyleaf soap plant
common soap plant
Indian soap plant
Indian soap root
soap plant
soap root
The scientific name of wavyleaf soap plant is
Chlorogalum pomeridianum (DC.) Kunth (Liliaceae) [
19,
27,
33]. Soap plant is 1 of 5 species in
the
Chlorogalum genus [
15] and the most abundant member of the genus [
59]. Accepted varieties are [
19,
27,
33,
38]:
Chlorogalum pomeridianum var. pomeridianum (DC.) Kunth
Chlorogalum pomeridianum var. minus Hoover
Chlorogalum pomeridianum var. divaricatum (Lindl.) Hoover
Forb
No special status
None
SPECIES: Chlorogalum pomeridianum
Wavyleaf soap plant is distributed from southwestern corner of Oregon southward into southern California [
33].Populations of
Chlorogalum pomeridianum var.
divaricatum and
C. p. var.
minus are documented only in California.
Chlorogalum p. var.
pomeridianum occurs in California and Oregon [
66].
![]() |
Figure 2. Wavyleaf soap plant distribution. Map courtesy of USDA, NRCS. 2015. The PLANTS Database.
National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC. (2015, June 9) [66]. |
Wavyleaf soap plant occurs in the following ecosystems, areas, and plant communities:
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES42 Annual grasslands
1 Northern Pacific Border
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K026 Oregon oakwoods
K030 California oakwoods
K033 Chaparral
K034 Montane chaparral
K035 Coastal sagebrush
K036 Mosaic of K030 and K035
K048 California steppe
233 Oregon white oak
234 Douglas-fir-tanoak-Pacific madrone
244 Pacific ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir
245 Pacific ponderosa pine
246 California black oak
247 Jeffrey pine
248 Knobcone pine
249 Canyon live oak
250 Blue oak-foothills pine
255 California coast live oak
109 Ponderosa pine shrubland
110 Ponderosa pine-grassland
201 Blue oak woodland
202 Coast live oak woodland
204 North coastal shrub
205 Coastal sage shrub
206 Chamise chaparral
207 Scrub oak mixed chaparral
208 Ceanothus mixed chaparral
209 Montane shrubland
214 Coastal prairie
215 Valley grassland
Wavyleaf soap plantoccurs in annual grasslands, coastal sage scrub, chaparral, oak woodlands, low-elevation conifer forests [
14,
24,
44,
59,
62,
63], and mixed-evergreen forests [
18]. It occurs on dry, open sites such as rocky hillsides, bluffs, and balds [
13,
15,
27,
32,
44,
45,
59]. It is most common in chaparral [
20,
26,
41,
60], particularly chamise (
Adenostoma fasciculatum) chaparral [
24,
63], and it occurs in serpentine chaparral [
54].
In Pinnacles National Monument, wavyleaf soap plant is found on
south-facing slopes that are drier and have shallower soils than are
typical of other chaparral communities in the Park [
24]. In addtion to oak woodlands, it also occurs in California bay (
Umbellularia californica) [
18] and interior live oak (
Quercus wislizeni) [
55] woodlands.
Wavyleaf soap plant is not documented as an indicator or a dominant
species in vegetation types of California and Oregon. Vegetation
classifications in which wavyleaf soap plant was descrbied as an
important component of the plant community follow:
California, general:
knobcone pine (
Pinus attenuata) communities [
69]
purple needlegrass (
Nassella pulchra) associations south and east of Monterey [
53]
abundant in chamise chaparral [
26]
Bald Hills oak woodlands, Redwood National Park:
Wavyleaf soap plant showed 0.78% frequency in an Oregon white oak/common snowberry (
Quercus garryana/Symphoricarpos
albus var.
laevigatus) community and 0.83% frequency in an Oregon white oak/orchard grass (
Dactylis glomerata)
community on mesic, lower concave slopes. It had 0.50% frequency in a mockorange/brittle bladder-fern
(
Philadelphus lewisii/Cystopteris fragilis) stream channel community with a dense shrub layer. Wavyleaf soap plant had 0.75% frequency
in a Sierra gooseberry/varileaf phacelia (
Ribes roezlii/Phacelia heterophylla)
community, a rock outcrop type with a moderately dense shrub layer. Its
cover ranged from 1% to 5% cover in all of thesecommunities [
63].
Pinnacles National Monument: Wavyleaf soap plant occurred in chamise chaparral with 16.7% mean frequency and 3%
mean cover[
24].
Ring Mountain Preserve, Marin County: Wavyleaf soap plant was common
in a serpentine bunchgrass community (characterized by many boulders
strewn among native perennial grasses and bulbous plant species), with
9.48% average frequency on north- and south-facing slopes and on
ridgetops. It had 0.84% frequency in the nonnative annual grassland
community. Wavyleaf soap plant had 3.3% cover in a coyotebrush (
Baccharis pilularis)
community (a steppe grassland characterized by slopes) and 6.47%
frequency in a freshwater seep community (characterized by the presence
of surface water, although some drainages typically dry completely by
June) [
18].
Santa Ana Mountains: On a serpentine site dominated by knobcone pine,
wavyleaf soap plant occupied exposed sites with 7% cover, but it was not
found in surrounding chaparral [
68].
SPECIES: Chlorogalum pomeridianum
| ![]() | Figure 3. Wavyleaf soap plant seeds. Image copyright ©2010 Jean Pawek. |
|
The following description of wavyleaf soap plant provides
characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for
identification. Keys for identification are available [
27,
38,
44,
45].
Wavyleaf soap plant is a native perennial forb. It has a basal tuft of wavy,
1-inch (2.5 cm) wide, linear leaves [
13,
14,
15,
29,
30,
45]. Exposure to sunlight tends to increase the wave patterns in leaf edges [
46].
The leaves are flaccid and stretch along the
ground up to 18 inches (46 cm). The star-like flowers are borne on a
leafless stalk that may grow to 6 feet (1.8
m) tall. The flowers open sequentially from bottom to top of the stalk.
Each flower displays for just 1 day, opening in late afternoon and
closing before dawn [
13,
14,
15,
29,
30,
45]. There may be just a few to more than 200 flowers per plant [
59]. The fruit is a capsule [
14] with 1 or 2 seeds per locule [
45].
The bulb is large—from 3 to 6 inches (7-15 cm) long and 1 to 3 inches
(3-8 cm) wide—and covered with persistent, dense fibers (see Figure 4).
Its fresh weight ranges from 0.7 to 12 ounces (20-350 g) [
9,
13,
14,
44].
Bulbs of mature plants are buried 4 to 12
inches (10-30 cm) underground. Contractile roots attach to the base of
the bulb; these roots pull the bulb downward, so the bulb becomes more
deeply buried over the life of the plant [
31].
![]() |
Figure 4. Wavyleaf soap plant bulb and contractile roots. Image by Jim Conrad. |
In the Ojai Ranger District of the Los Padres National Forest, total
mortality rate of a wavyleaf soap plant population was 43% (13 of 30
plants) over 8 years. Causes of mortality were unknown, but annual
mortality was not correlated with precipitation of the current or
previous year [
9].
Wavyleaf soap plant regenerates from seed and by sprouting from the bulb.
Pollination: There is only a small window of time in which individual flowers of wavyleaf soap plant can be
pollinated, since each flower opens for only 1 afternoon and evening [
29,
59].
During the day, large
bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, and 2 species of bumblebee) pollinate
the flowers; rare or infrequent visits are made by yellowjackets,
mining bees (
Lasioglossum sisymbrii),
and Allen's hummingbirds [
59]. After dark, sphingid moths visit the flowers [
30]. Removal of the shrub layer and the subsequent increase
in light availability after fire may enhance pollination rates
[
22] (see
Fire Ecology or Adaptations).
Breeding system: A laboratory study showed that wavyleaf soap plants are
self-compatible [
59]; however, in the field, most pollination is probably accomplished by insects [
30,
59].
Flower and seed production: It takes 5 to 7 years for plants to reach reproductive age [
59].
Limited data suggest that wavyleaf soap plant does not produce flowers
and seeds every year. Two populations on the Los Padres National Forest
showed a pattern of alternating years of mass flowering with years of
little to no flowering. For individual plants, the probability of
producing a flower stalk was positively associated with leaf area (
P=0.2). High rates of leaf herbivory were negatively associated with flower production (
P<0.0002) [
9].
Wavyleaf soap plant flower and seed production increase after fire and other canopy-opening disturbances [
8,
9,
22]. In California chaparral, geophytes
such as wavyleaf soap plant typically show good seed production the 1st year after fire [
8].
On the Los Padres National Forest, wavyleaf soap plant had higher seed
production the year after a prescribed fire than on an adjacent unburned
site [
9] (see
Plant Response to Fire).
Seed dispersal: Seeds are dispersed by gravity [
34] and usually fall beneath parent wavyleaf soap plants [
9].
Seed banking: Wavyleaf soap plant apparently has a short-lived seed bank [
34], but as of 2015, studies on the longevity of wavyleaf soap plant seeds in the field had not been conducted.
Germination: Wavyleaf soap plant seeds are
not dormant [
9]. Viable seeds germinate readily upon wetting, incubating under
moderate temperatures [
3,
34]. In the laboratory, seeds germinated about 7 days after imbibition [
31].
Seedling establishment and plant growth: In California chaparral, seedling establishment for most geophytes, such as wavyleaf soap plant,
is most common in postfire year 2, when light and nutrient levels remain high but
interference from shrubs, herbivory, and seed predation are still low [
8]. In order to
survive summer drought, seedlings must rapidly develop a large bulb and an adequate root
system [
34].
Asexual regeneration: Wavyleaf soap plant sprouts from the bulb. If disturbances such as fire or rockslide top-kill wavyleaf soap plant during its
growing season, it typically sprouts soon after top-kill [
3,
34]. If the disturbance occurs after plants have already senesced, plants resume growth as usual the next growing season [
35]. Vegetative reproduction also occurs by bulb splitting or division, but whether bulb splitting occurs naturally in not known [
9]. Sierra Miwoks would often break bulbs apart when harvesting wavyleaf soap plant (see
Other Uses), leaving some bulb and root tissue behind to regenerate [
2].
Bulb dormancy was rare in an 8-year study on the Los Padres National
Forest. Typically, individual wavyleaf soap plants sprouted every year.
If they failed to sprout one year, they also failed to sprout in
subsequent years and were presumed dead [
9].
The climate in which wavyleaf soap plant grows is mediterranean [
54], with cool, wet winters and warm, dry summers [
24]. The mean
annual precipitation ranges from 16 to 20 inches (410-510 mm) [
53].
Wavyleaf soap plant grows from low to midelevations. The following
table provides elevations where wavyleaf soap plant has been collected.
Table 1. Elevational ranges of wavyleaf soap plant across its distribution |
Location | Elevation |
Oregon (southwestern) | below 5,000 feet (1,524 m) [27] |
California (across the state) | below 5,000 feet (1,524 m) [27,45,59] |
Elk Creek Drainage (Sequoia National Park) | 2,100 feet (640 m) [60] |
Hastings Natural History Reservation, San Lucia Range, Monterey County | 860 to 3,600 feet (262-1,050 m) [61] |
Pinnacles National Monument | 1,200 to 3,000 feet (370-910 m) [24] |
Donald and Sylvia McLaughlin University of California
Natural Reserve | 1,200 to 3,100 feet (370-950 m) [54] |
central Sierra Nevada | up to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) [51] |
Santa Ana Mountains | average 3,500 feet (1,100 m) [68] |
Wavyleaf soap plant is most common in early seral or open communities.
It is a somewhat shade-tolerant species and may persist vegetatively in
mature chaparral or closed-canopy forests in low numbers. It seldom
flowers under low light, and plants growing in low-light conditions
often show extensive damage from animal grazing [
7,
34,
36,
43,
54,
64]. In chaparral, wavyleaf soap plant is common on stand edges or in openings but is infrequent under the shrub canopy [
50].
Wavyleaf soap's phenology varies depending on habitat and elevation. It
sprouts new leaves in late fall or winter, and the leaves elongate with
warm spring temperatures [
9]. Flowering period ranges from May to August across its range [
14,
44,
45,
59]. Leaves usually die back in summer, but the flower stalk stays green until August, when seed disperse [
2,
9].
SPECIES: Chlorogalum pomeridianum
Wavyleaf soap plant sprouts from the bulb and establishes from seed after fire [
5,
7,
9,
12,
22,
34,
35,
36,
43]. Soil insulates the large, deeply buried bulb from fire
[
12,
22], and the bulb is well-endowed with starch and other stored nutrients to postfire growth. Wavyleaf soap plant commonly
masts the 1st growing season after fire [
11,
22]. Gill [
22]
suggested that wavyleaf soap plant pollination is favored by the
increase in light following shrub removal by fire. Further, increased
flowering and seed
production after fire allows use of the available mineral seed bed,
which may result in good seedling establishment in early postfire years [
22].
Fire regimes: The plant communities in which wavyleaf soap plant occurs have a variety of fire regimes. Chaparral communities,
in which wavyleaf soap plant is common, have frequent, stand-replacing fires at less than 100-year intervals [
47].
The low-elevation oak and low-elevation ponderosa pine woodlands, in which soap
plant is also common, historically had mostly frequent, low-severity surface fires [
10]. Higher-elevation mixed-conifer communities had mixed-severity and occasional stand-replacement fires at longer intervals [
38].
The following table provides fire return intervals for plant
communities and
ecosystems where wavyleaf soap plant is important. For further
information,
see the FEIS Species Review of the dominant species listed below. Find
more fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the
FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
Table 2. Fire regimes of plant communities in which wavyleaf soap plant occurs |
Community or ecosystem | Dominant species | Fire return interval range (years) |
California chaparral | Adenostoma and/or Arctostaphylos spp. | <35 to <100 |
coastal sagebrush | Artemisia californica | <35 to <100 |
California montane chaparral | Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. | 50-100 [47] |
California steppe | Festuca-Danthonia spp. | <35 [47,62] |
Jeffrey pine | Pinus jeffreyi | 5-30 |
Pacific ponderosa pine* | Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa | 1-47 |
California mixed conifer | Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa-Abies concolor-P. lambertiana | 10-150 [38] |
California mixed evergreen | Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii-Lithocarpus densiflorus-Arbutus
menziesii | <35 |
California oakwoods | Quercus spp. | <35 [4] |
coast live oak | Quercus agrifolia | 2-75 [23] |
canyon live oak | Quercus chrysolepis | <35 to 200 |
blue oak-foothills pine | Quercus douglasii-P. sabiniana | <35 |
Oregon white oak | Quercus garryana | <35 [4] |
California black oak | Quercus kelloggii | 5-30 [47] |
*Fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the Species Review. |
SPECIES: Chlorogalum pomeridianum
Because the leaves and flower stalk are desiccated by late summer and early fall [
2,
9] (see
Seasonal Development), wavyleaf soap plant is little affected by fires that occur during the fire season [
35]. Fires that occur from winter to midsummer—during wavyleaf soap plant's growing season—top-kill mature plants [
35]. Fires in any season may kill seedlings with small, shallowly buried bulbs. The bulbs of mature plants are usually well
protected from fire, regardless of when fire occurs [
22,
35,
40]. Since wavyleaf soap plant has contractile roots that pull the bulb deeper underground throughout the plant's life (see
General Botanical Characteristics), the bulb becomes increasingly protected from fire as the plant ages.
As of 2015, the effect of fire on the seeds was unknown. Since
this species has an apparently short-lived seed bank that is replenished
soon after fire, seeds present in the soil seed bank before fire may
not be important for wavyleaf soap plant's postfire regeneration.
Wavyleaf soap plant sprouts from its deeply buried
bulbs after fire, and it shows "vigorous" growth and masting in the first postfire year [
5,
7,
9,
34,
35,
36,
43]. Population size may be larger than prefire levels for 4 or more postfire years [
5,
55,
64].
Postfire sprouting occurs in late fall or winter, during the plant's normal growth cycle [
35] (see
Seasonal Development).
The postfire release of nutrients, increased light, and removal of
competing vegetation favors wavyleaf soap plant growth and flowering in
early postfire environments [
9]. Reynolds [
51] suggested that wavyleaf soap plant prefers burned or other disturbed sites
and that periodic burning is required to maintain healthy populations.
![]() |
Figure 5. Wavyleaf soap plant sprouting in a
mixed-conifer habitat, 15 months after the 2013 Rim Wildfire on the
Stanislaus National Forest. Photo by Becky Howard. |
Many have noted that wavyleaf soap plant is abundant and
widespread on burns [
8,
39,
55,
56,
64]. Sampson [
55]
called it "one of the most conspicuous broad-leaved herbs" on new
chaparral burns. After 2 fires in northern California (Mendocino and
Shasta counties), density of wavyleaf soap plant increased for at least 5
postfire years (see Table 3). The fire in Mendocino County occurred in
September. Sampson [
55] did not provide timing of the fire in Shasta County and did not note whether these fires were prescribed or wild.
Table 3. Wavyleaf soap plant density (plants/milacre) before and after fires in northern California [55] |
Site/plant community | Prefire | Postfireyear 1 | Postfireyear 2 | Postfireyear 3 | Postfireyear 4 | Postfireyear 5 |
Mendocino County/chamise chaparral | 0.6 | 2.7 | 3.5 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 2.0 |
Shasta County/interior live oak-blue oak | 0.1 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.4 |
This study suggests that wavyleaf soap plant populations peak in
postfire years 2 or 3 but remain large for at least 4 or 5 postfire
years. Sweeney [
64] also noted that wavyleaf soap plant abundance increased in postfire years 2 and 3. Barbour and others [
5] suggested that wavyleaf soap plant numbers
remain constant for up to 4 years after fire.
On the Los Padres National Forest, wavyleaf soap plant showed
enhanced flower and seed production after prescribed and wildfires. On
the Ojai Ranger District, 640 acres (260 ha) of a chamise community was
burned under prescription in October 1997. Fire severity was low to
moderate. Prefire density of wavyleaf soap plant was higher on the site
targeted for burning (Site 1, with 1.9 plants/m²) than on the unburned
control (Site 2, with 0.5 plant/m²). Prior to the fire, neither site had
burned for over 100 years. The year after the prescribed fire (1998),
flower production (flowers/plant) was significantly higher on Site 1
(burned) than on Site 2 (unburned) (
P=0.5). In late December
1999, a wildfire burned both sites. On Site 1 (Rx + wildfire), the
percentage of flowering stalks was highest year after the prescribed
fire. On Site 2 (wildfire only), it was highest after the wildfire.
Flower stalk production was synchronous between the 2 sites (
P=0.0008), and there was a pattern of alternating years of flowering and no flowering [
9] (Figure 6).
![]() |
Figure 6. Percentage of wavyleaf soap plant individuals
flowering after prescribed fire and wildfire on 2 study sites on Los
Padres National Forest. The prescribed fire was conducted at Site 1 in
1997, and wildfire
burned both sites in late 1999 [9]. |
On Site 1, flower production increased again in 2000 (after the
wildfire), but it did not exceed production of 1999 (the 2nd year after
the prescribed fire). On Site 2 , flower production was highest in 2000
(Figure 7). Fruit production generally followed the trend of flower
production at both sites. The authors concluded that in this study, fire
stimulated flowering and seed production in wavyleaf soap plant but was
not required for its reproduction. They noted that whether high
postfire seed production results in high seedling establishment is not
well known [
9].
![]() |
Figure 7. Flowers per plant at each site [9]. |
Wavyleaf soap plant is well adapted to survive fire and flourish in
the open conditions characteristic of early postfire communities.
Because it was a valued resource, Pomo Indians burned areas where
wavyleaf soap plant grew often enough to reduce other vegetation and
maintain open communities, favoring wavyleaf soap planbt growth and
reproduction [
2].
In a study in the Bald Hills of Redwood National Park, wavyleaf soap
plant was positively associated with Oregon white oak woodlands (
P=0.04)
that were burned under prescription at 3- to 5-year intervals. It had
"high indicator value" for intact burned woodlands: those that still
retained the open structure characteristic of the Bald Hills [
40]. This species responds favorably to prescribed and wildfires.
SPECIES: Chlorogalum pomeridianum
Wavyleaf soap plant is of some importance to livestock and wildlife
throughout its distribution. Studies in Alameda and Santa Clara counties
found California ground squirrels graze wavyleaf soap plant leaves [
16]. Ground squirrels, pocket gophers, other rodents, rabbits, and mule deer consume the leaves and inflorescences [
16,
28,
36,
49]. Granivorous rodents eat the seeds [
49].
![]() |
Figure 8. Mule deer eating wavyleaf soap plant leaves. Image by Trevor Hebert, Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve. |
Although livestock use of wavyleaf soap plant is not well documented, it is likely consumed when available.
Sampson [
55]
reported that wavyleaf soap plant is "closely cropped" by cattle,
domestic sheep, and domestic goats. On the Hastings Natural History
Reservation and the Santa Lucia Range in
Monterey County, wavyleaf soap plant occurred only on sites without
livestock [
61].
Palatability/nutritional value: Frequent use of
wavyleaf soap plant leaves and flower stalks by wildlife [
16,
28,
36,
49] suggests that its palatability is good.
Cover value: Wavyleaf soap plant is too small to provide cover for vertebrates.
Wavyleaf soap plant has been used for restoration. The US Army Corps of Engineers propagated
wavyleaf soap plant from seed (in a nursery) for revegetating wildlife habitat in
their Los Angeles District [
25]. Seeds of wavyleaf soap plant were collected and hydroseeded on San Bruno Mountain,
San Bruno State Park [
71], although rate of establishment was not reported.
PLANTS Database [
2] provides information on propagating wavyleaf soap plant.
Wavyleaf soap plant is planted for landscaping [
2].
Wavyleaf soap plant was traditionally used by Indians and early settlers [
1]. Tribes using wavyleaf soap plant included but were not limited to the Miwok, Hulpumne Yokuts,
and Wailakis [
1,
3,
13,
51]. Highly sought for
food, utensils, and medicine, wavyleaf soap plant was one of the most versatile plants in
the Miwok economy [
51].
There were
many traditional uses of wavyleaf soap plant. The starchy bulb was used as food and for making utensils [
3].
It was boiled or roasted to remove soapy taste, then eaten like a potato. The young shoots, when
thoroughly roasted, are said to be as "sweet as sugar" [
13,
65].
Wavyleaf soap plant was used as
emergency food during lean acorn years [
1]. The leaves, which are flexible and
half-succulent, were used to cover bread dough
while baking
[
13]. The bulb in particular had multiple uses. Fibers from the bulb
were used to stuff mattresses and to make brushes, ropes, and baskets
[
13,
14,
42,
65]. The bulb contains saponin, a soap substitute [
2,
15], and the bulbs were
crushed to make a lather for laundry and bathing. When the bulb and young shoots
are boiled, a resinous substance is exuded that was used as a glue to attach feathers to arrow shafts
[
13,
14]. The roasted bulb was used antiseptically as a poultice
for sores. The Wailakis used it on the body for cramps and for rheumatism. A
decoction of the bulb was also used as a diuretic and laxative [
13].
![]() |
Figure 9. Brush made from the outer fibers of a
wavyleaf soap plant bulb. California Indians used these brushes to sweep
acorn meal from grinding rocks into baskets. Image by Cait Hutnik. |
California Indians also used wavyleaf soap plant bulbs for fishing.
They crushed the bulbs, worked them into a lather, and threw them into
quiet pools. The saponin in the lather stunned
and immobilized fish, causing them to float to
the top of the water where they were easily caught [
2,
13,
14,
42].
No further information is available on this topic
.
REFERENCES:
1. Anderson, M. Kat. 1997. From tillage to
table: the indigenous cultivation of geophytes for food in California.
Journal of Ethnobiology. 17(2): 149-169. [35818]
2. Anderson, M. Kat; Roderick, Wayne. 2006.
Plant guide: Soaproot: Chlorogalum pomeridianum (DC.) Kunth, [Online].
In: PLANTS profile. In: PLANTS database. Baton Rouge, LA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service,
National Plant Data Center (Producer). Available: http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_chpo3.pdf [2015, June 9].
[89038]
3. Anderson, Marion Kathleen. 1993. The
experimental approach to assessment of the potential ecological effects
of horticultural practices by indigenous peoples on California
wildlands. Berkeley, CA: University of California. 211 p.
Dissertation. [33081]
4. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western
forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds.
Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep.
RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]
5. Barbour, Michael G.; Burk, Jack H.;
Pitts, Wanna D. 1980. Fire. In: Terrestrial plant ecology. Menlo
Park, CA: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc: 365-583.
[45716]
6. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F.
1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM
physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven
western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the
Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
7. Biswell, Harold H. 1974. Effects of
fire on chaparral. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Fire
and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press: 321-364. [14542]
8. Borchert, Mark. 2004. Vertebrate seed
dispersal of Marah macrocarpus (Cucurbitaceae) after fire in the western
Transverse Ranges of California. Ecoscience. 11(4): 463-471.
[55663]
9. Borchert, Mark; Tyler, Claudia M. 2009.
Patterns of post-fire flowering and fruiting in Chlorogalum
pomeridianum var. pomeridianum (DC.) Kunth in southern California
chaparral. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 18(5): 623-630.
[81584]
10. Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler,
eds. 2000. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora.
Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 257 p.
[36581]
11. Chang, Chi-ru. 1996. Ecosystem
responses to fire and variations in fire regimes. In: Status of the
Sierra Nevada. Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final report to
Congress. Volume 2: Assessments and scientific basis for management
options. Wildland Resources Center Report No. 37. Davis, CA:
University of California, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources:
1071-1099. [28976]
12. Chapman, Rachel Ross; Crow, Garrett E.
1981. Application of Raunkiaer's life form system to plant species
survival after fire. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 108(4):
472-478. [617]
13. Chesnut, V. K. 1902. Plants used by
the Indians of Mendocino County, California. Contributions from the
U.S. National Herbarium. [Washington, DC]: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Division of Botany. 7(3): 295-408. [54917]
14. Dale, Nancy. 1986. Flowering plants:
The Santa Monica Mountains, coastal and chaparral regions of southern
California. Santa Barbara, CA: Capra Press. 239 p. In cooperation
with: The California Native Plant Society. [7605]
15. Dayton, William A. 1960. Notes on
western range forbs: Equisetaceae through Fumariaceae. Agric. Handb.
161. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 254
p. [767]
16. Evans, F. C.; Holdenried, R. 1943. A
population study of the Beechey ground squirrel in central California.
Journal of Mammalogy. 24(2): 231-260. [55800]
17. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover
types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of
American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
18. Fiedler, Peggy Lee; Leidy, Robert A.
1987. Plant communities of Ring Mountain Preserve, Marin County,
California. Madrono. 34(3): 173-192. [4068]
19. Flora of North America Editorial
Committee, eds. 2015. Flora of North America north of Mexico,
[Online]. Flora of North America Association (Producer). Available: http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1. [36990]
20. Fried, Jeremy S.; Bolsinger, Charles
L.; Beardsley, Debby. 2004. Chaparral in southern and central coastal
California in the mid-1990s: area, ownership, condition, and change.
Resource Bulletin PNW-RB-240. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 86 p.
[50376]
21. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell
J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation
and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric.
Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service. 68 p. [998]
22. Gill, A. Malcolm. 1977. Plant traits
adaptive to fires in Mediterranean land ecosystems. In: Mooney,
Harold A.; Conrad, C. Eugene, technical coordinators. Proceedings of the
symposium on the environmental consequences of fire and fuel management
in Mediterranean ecosystems; 1977 August 1-5; Palo Alto, CA. Gen. Tech.
Rep. WO-3. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service: 17-26. [4798]
23. Greenlee, Jason M.; Langenheim, Jean H.
1990. Historic fire regimes and their relation to vegetation patterns
in the Monterey Bay area of California. The American Midland
Naturalist. 124(2): 239-253. [15144]
24. Halvorson, William L.; Clark, Ronilee
A. 1989. Vegetation and floristics of Pinnacles National Monument.
Tech. Rep. No. 34. Davis, CA: University of California at Davis,
Institute of Ecology, Cooperative National Park Resources Study Unit.
113 p. [11883]
25. Harlacher, Richard A. 1985.
Production of native plant materials for wildlife management programs.
In: Rieger, John P.; Steele, Bobbie A., eds. Proceedings of the native
plant revegetation symposium; 1984 November 15; San Diego, CA. San
Diego, CA: California Native Plant Society: 62-69. [3345]
26. Hedrick, Donald W. 1951. Studies on
the succession and manipulation of chamise brushlands in California.
College Station, TX: Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College. 113 p.
Dissertation. [8525]
27. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The
Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University
of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]
28. Hobbs, Richard J.; Mooney, Harold A.
1991. Effects of rainfall variability and gopher disturbance on
serpentine annual grassland dynamics. Ecology. 72(1): 59-68.
[14103]
29. Jernstedt, Judith A. 1980. Anthesis
and floral senescence in Chlorogalum pomeridianum (Liliaceae).
American Journal of Botany. 67(5): 824-832. [56111]
30. Jernstedt, Judith A. 1980.
Ultraviolet absorption by flowers of Chlorogalum (Liliaceae).
Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 107(2): 163-171. [56112]
31. Jernstedt, Judith A. 1984. Seedling
growth and root contraction in the soap plant, Chlorogalum pomeridianum
(Liliaceae). American Journal of Botany. 71(1): 69-75. [56110]
32. Jimerson, Thomas M.; Carothers, Sydney
K. 2002. Northwest California oak woodlands: environment, species
composition, and ecological status. In: Standiford, Richard B.;
McCreary, Douglas; Purcell, Kathryn L., technical coordinators.
Proceedings of the 5th symposium on oak woodlands: oaks in California's
changing landscape; 2001 October 22-25; San Diego, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep.
PSW-GTR-184. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station: 705-717. [42366]
33. Kartesz, John T. 1999. A synonymized
checklist and atlas with biological attributes for the vascular flora of
the United States, Canada, and Greenland. 1st ed. In: Kartesz, John
T.; Meacham, Christopher A. Synthesis of the North American flora
(Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Chapel Hill, NC: North Carolina
Botanical Garden (Producer). In cooperation with: The Nature
Conservancy; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
Conservation Service; U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife
Service. [36715]
34. Keeley, Jon E. 1991. Seed germination
and life history syndromes in the California chaparral. The
Botanical Review. 57(2): 81-116. [36973]
35. Keeley, Jon E. 2006. South Coast
bioregion. In: Sugihara, Neil G.; van Wagtendonk, Jan W.; Shaffer,
Kevin E.; Fites-Kaufman, Joann; Thode, Andrea E., eds. Fire in
California's ecosystems. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press:
350-390. [65557]
36. Keeley, Sterling C.; Keeley, Jon E.;
Hutchinson, Steve M.; Johnson, Albert W. 1981. Postfire succession of
the herbaceous flora in southern California chaparral. Ecology.
62(6): 1608-1621. [5778]
37. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States
[Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States].
Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society.
1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]
38. LANDFIRE Biophysical Settings. 2009.
Biophysical setting 0610280: Mediterranean California mesic mixed
conifer forest and woodland. In: LANDFIRE Biophysical Setting Model:
Map zone 06, [Online]. In: Vegetation Dynamics Models. In: LANDFIRE.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory; U.S. Geological
Survey; Arlington, VA: The Nature Conservancy (Producers). Available: http://www.landfire.gov/national_veg_models_op2.php [2015, June 10].
[89046]
39. Lewis, Henry T. 1973. Patterns of
Indian burning in California: ecology and ethnohistory. Ballena Press
Anthropological Papers No. 1. Ramona, CA: Ballena Press. 101 p.
[28351]
40. Livingston, Amy C. 2014. Plant
community responses to fire exclusion, species invasions, and
restoration in California woodlands and grasslands. St. Arcata, CA:
Humboldt State University. 107 p. Thesis. [88574]
41. McPherson, James K.; Muller, Cornelius
H. 1969. Allelopathic effects of Adenostoma fasciculatum, "chamise",
in the California chaparral. Ecological Monographs. 39(2): 177-198.
[13559]
42. Moerman, Dan. 2003. Native American
ethnobotany: A database of foods, drugs, dyes, and fibers of Native
American peoples, derived from plants, [Online]. Dearborn, MI:
University of Michigan (Producer). Available: herb.umd.umich.edu/ [2015,
May 8]. [37492]
43. Muller, Cornelius H.; Hanawalt, Ronald
B.; McPherson, James K. 1968. Allelopathic control of herb growth in
the fire cycle of California chaparral. Bulletin of the Torrey
Botanical Club. 95(3): 225-231. [4973]
44. Munz, Philip A. 1974. A flora of southern California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1086 p. [4924]
45. Munz, Philip A.; Keck, David D. 1973.
A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press. 1905 p. [6155]
46. Pacific Bulb Society. 2015.
Chlorogalum. Milwaukie, OR: Pacific Bulb Society Wiki (Producer).
Available online: http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Chlorogalum [6 June
2015]. [89035]
47. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James;
Brown, James K.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Haase, Sally M.; Harrington,
Michael G.; Narog, Marcia G.; Sackett, Stephen S.; Wilson, Ruth C.
2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems.
In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in
ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol.
2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]
48. Pitschel, Barbara M. 1988. Value of
propagule bank revealed by grassland restoration project (California).
Restoration & Management Notes. 6(1): 35-36. [5471]
49. Quinn, Ronald D. 1994. Animals, fire
and vertebrate herbivory in Californian chaparral and other
Mediterranean-type ecosystems. In: Moreno, Jose M.; Oechel, Walter
C., eds. The role of fire in Mediterranean-type ecosystems. New York:
Springer Verlag: 46-78. [26804]
50. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of
plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford, England: Clarendon
Press. 632 p. [2843]
51. Reynolds, Richard Dwan. 1959. Effect
of natural fires and aboriginal burning upon the forests of the central
Sierra Nevada. Berkeley, CA: University of California. 268 p.
Thesis. [37435]
52. Rice, Carol. 1990. Restoration plays
an integral role in fire hazard reduction plan for the Berkeley Hills
Area. Restoration & Management Notes. 8(2): 125-126. [13792]
53. Robinson, Richard Hayes. 1971. An
analysis of ecological factors limiting the distribution of a group of
Stipa pulchra associations. Korean Journal of Botany. 14(3): 61-80.
[28363]
54. Safford, Hugh D.; Harrison, Susan.
2004. Fire effects on plant diversity in serpentine vs. sandstone
chaparral. Ecology. 85(2): 539-548. [47495]
55. Sampson, Arthur W. 1944. Plant
succession on burned chaparral lands in northern California. Bull.
65. Berkeley, CA: University of California, College of Agriculture,
Agricultural Experiment Station. 144 p. [2050]
56. Sampson, Arthur W.; Burcham, L. T.
1954. Costs and returns of controlled brush burning for range
improvement in northern California. Range Improvement Studies No. 1.
Sacramento, CA: California Department of Natural Resources, Division of
Forestry. 41 p. [41820]
57. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994.
Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for
Range Management. 152 p. [23362]
58. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin
of species comprising secondary plant succession in northern Rocky
Mountain forests. FEIS workshop: Postfire regeneration. Unpublished
draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 10 p.
[20090]
59. Stockhouse, Robert E., II; Wells,
Harrington. 1978. Pollination ecology of Chlorogalum pomeridianum
(D.C.) Kunth. (Liliaceae). Bulletin of the Southern California
Academy of Sciences. 77(3): 124-129. [55797]
60. Stocking, Stephen K. 1966. Influences
of fire and sodium-calcium borate on chaparral vegetation. Madrono.
18(7): 193-203. [9794]
61. Stromberg, Mark R.; Griffin, James R.
1996. Long-term patterns in coastal California grasslands in relation
to cultivation, gophers, and grazing. Ecological Applications. 6(4):
1189-1211. [41117]
62. Stromberg, Mark R.; Kephart, Paul;
Yadon, Vern. 2001. Composition, invasibility, and diversity in coastal
California grasslands. Madrono. 48(4): 236-252. [41371]
63. Sugihara, Neil G.; Reed, Lois J. 1987.
Vegetation ecology of the Bald Hills oak woodlands of Redwood National
Park. Tech. Rep. 21. Orick, CA: Redwood National Park Research and
Development, South Operations Center. 78 p. [55266]
64. Sweeney, James R. 1956. Responses of
vegetation to fire: A study of the herbaceous vegetation following
chaparral fires. University of California Publications in Botany.
[Berkeley, CA: University of California Press]. 28(4): 143-250. [3776]
65. Sweet, Muriel. 1962. Common edible and useful plants of the West. Healdsburg, CA: Naturegraph Company. 64 p. [54095]
66. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
Resources Conservation Service. 2015. PLANTS Database, [Online].
Available: http://plants.usda.gov/. [34262]
67. van Wagtendonk, Jan W.; Fites-Kaufman,
Joann. 2006. Sierra Nevada bioregion. In: Sugihara, Neil G.; van
Wagtendonk, Jan W.; Shaffer, Kevin E.; Fites-Kaufman, Joann; Thode,
Andrea E., eds. Fire in California's ecosystems. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press: 264-294. [65544]
68. Vogl, Richard J. 1973. Ecology of
knobcone pine in the Santa Ana Mountains, California. Ecological
Monographs. 43: 125-143. [4815]
69. Vogl, Richard J.; Armstrong, Wayne P.;
White, Keith L.; Cole, Kenneth L. 1977. The closed-cone pines and
cypress. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial
vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 295-358.
[7219]
70. Wade, Dale D.; Brock, Brent L.; Brose,
Patrick H.; Grace, James B.; Hoch, Greg A.; Patterson, William A., III.
2000. Fire in eastern ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane
Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora.
Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 53-96.
[36983]
71. Walsh, Raymond C.; Reid, Thomas S.
1988. Habitat reclamation for endangered species on San Bruno Mountain.
In: Rieger, John P.; Williams, Bradford K., eds. Proceedings of the
second native plant revegetation symposium; 1987 April 15-18; San Diego,
CA. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Arboretum, Society for
Ecological Restoration & Management: 70-75. [4098]