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\begin{document}

\title{How much multiple paternity should we expect? A study of birds and
contrast with mammals}



\author[1]{F. Stephen Dobson}%
\author[1]{Hannah Correia}%
\author[1]{Ash Abebe}%
\affil[1]{Auburn University}%


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  \date{June 14, 2024}


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\begin{abstract}
Parentage analyses via molecular markers have revealed multiple
paternity within the broods of polytocous species, reshaping our
understanding of animal behavior, ecology, and evolution. In a
meta-analysis of multiple paternity in bird and mammal species, we
conducted a literature search and found 138 bird and 64 mammal
populations with microsatellite DNA paternity results. Bird populations
averaged 19.5\% multiple paternity and mammals more than twice that
level (46.1\%). We used a Bayesian approach to construct a null model
for how multiple paternity should behave at random among species, under
the assumption that all mated males have equal likelihood of siring
success, given mean brood size and mean number of sires. We compared the
differences between the null model and actual probabilities of multiple
paternity. While a few bird populations fell close to the null model,
most did not, averaging 34.0-percentage points below null model
predictions; mammals had an average probability of multiple paternity
13.6-percentage points below the null model. Differences between bird
and mammal species were also subjected to comparative phylogenetic
analyses that generally confirmed our analyses that did not adjust for
estimated historical relationships. Birds exhibited extremely low
probabilities of multiple paternity, not only compared to mammals, but
relative to other major animal taxa. The generally low probability of
multiple paternity in birds might be produced by a variety of factors,
including behaviors that reflect sexual selection (extreme mate guarding
or unifocal female choice) and sperm competition (e.g., precedence
effects favoring fertilization by early or late matings).%
\end{abstract}%



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\verb`Birds16 - clean.docx`  available at \url{https://authorea.com/users/418513/articles/685108-how-much-multiple-paternity-should-we-expect-a-study-of-birds-and-contrast-with-mammals}

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